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CjJElfRIGHT DEPOSir. 



EDUCATIONAL SURVEY SERIES 



School Organization and 
Administration 



EDUCATIONAL SURVEY SERIES 

School Organization and 
Administration 

A Concrete Study based on the 
Salt Lake City School Survey 

By ELLWOOD P. CUBBERLEY 

PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, LELAND 
STANFORD JUNIOR UNIVERSITY 

Assisted by 

Jesse B. Sears, Lewis M. Terman 

James H. Van Sickle, und 

J. Harold Williams 




YONKERS-ON-HUDSON, NEW YORK. 

WORLD BOOK COMPANY 
1916 



Copyright, 1916, by World Book Company 

All rights reserved 

ss : csoA — I 






h 

AUG 25 1916 



r^ 



©ci.A4:r/3':i 



PUBLISHERS' PREFACE 

"p\URING two or three years preceding 191 5 a certain 
■*^ amount of general criticism developed in Salt Lake 
City with reference to the work of the schools and the effi- 
ciency of the instruction and supervision. The harmonious 
cooperation which had previously existed between the Board 
of Education and the Superintendent of Instruction came to 
be somewhat impaired, and the confidence of the citizens in 
their schools was somewhat shaken. In particular, the rather 
common complaint was raised that the administration of the 
schools was not efficient, and that the instruction in the fun- 
damental school subjects was not producing the best results. 

The superintending authorities did what they could to 
meet such criticism by increasing time allowances, and 
similar measures, but without appreciable results. Finally, 
the Superintendent of Schools for the city recommended to 
the Board of Education that educational experts from out- 
side the state be invited in to make a school survey, decide 
mooted questions, and outline an educational policy for the 
future. The President of the Board of Education also 
made a similar recommendation to the Board and to the 
people in the printed annual school report for 1913-14. 

In May, 19 14, the Board of Education acted on these 
recommendations and ordered a school survey, appropriated 
$4,000 to cover the cost of making such survey, not includ- 
ing the printing of the report, and invited Professor Cub- 
berley, head of the Department of Education at Leland 
Stanford Junior University, together with such persons as 
he might choose to associate with him, to conduct the survey. 

The nature of the survey decided on by Professor Cub- 
berley was determined somewhat by the character of the 
criticisms which had given origin to it. The survey con- 
cerned itself especially with the form of organization and 
administration under which the schools were operated, the 



vi Publishers^ Preface 

system of supervisory control by means of which the Super- 
intendent of Schools worked, the progress in the funda- 
mental subjects being made by the children in the schools, 
and the problem of adequate finance. The field work was 
conducted during May, the report was prepared during 
June, and the printed volume was issued in October, 191 5. 

The conclusions of the report, unlike those of most sur- 
veys which have so far been made, were favorable to the 
Superintendent of Schools, and the report is a rather strong 
testimonial as to the value of the fifteen years of service he 
had given to the city. The chief criticism of his work is 
in the overemphasis he had allowed, as revealed by the tests 
made of the work in the schools, of the instruction in the 
so-called fundamental school subjects. 

The report contained, in addition, a number of features 
which were quite distinctive, and which made the document so 
much in demand that it was out of print wnthin six months 
of its publication. Among these should be mentioned the 
detailed explanation of the tests made and the results ob- 
tained, the study of the instruction of retarded pupils, the 
work in health control, the school building and site problem, 
and the peculiar financial problem presented by this city. 

In consideration of this large demand, both from individ- 
uals and for university class use, the publishers have decided 
to reissue the report as a member of their Survey Series, 
with the hope of its meeting a still larger usefulness. Be- 
fore its reissue, each chapter has been carefully revised by 
the member of the survey staff responsible for it, and the 
whole by the director of the survey. While the study was 
made with the needs and conditions of a particular city in 
mind, the methods and the conclusions are of such general 
application that it has been felt to be perfectly proper to 
give the document the more general title of a study in 
School Organiaation and Administration. As such a con- 
crete study, it is hoped that it may meet with large useful- 
ness among students of city educational administration in 
all parts of the United States. 



DIRECTOR'S LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL 

Mr. Ledyard M. Bailey, Chairman Survey Committee, Salt 

Lake City, Utah. 
Dear Sir: 

I have the honor to submit to you herewith, for your com- 
mittee, the final report of the survey of the public school system 
of your city, as authorized and directed by resolution of your 
Board of Education on May 4, 1915. 

The work on this survey was begun in Salt Lake City on May 
10. The survey staff, with the particular parts assigned to each 
member, was as follows: 

Ellwood p. Cubberley, Professor of Education, Leland Stanford Junior 
University. Director of the Survey; Administration; Finances. 

Jesse B. Sears, Assistant Professor of Education, Leland Stanford Junior 
University. Efficiency Tests. 

Lewis M. Terman, Associate Professor of Education, Leland Stanford 
Junior University. School Buildings; Health Supervision; Physical 
Education. 

James H. Van Sickle, Superintendent of City Schools, Springfield, 
Massachusettsr Courses of Study; Instruction. 

J. Harold Willlams, Director of Research, Whittier (Cal.) State School 
for Delinquents. Progress of Pupils; Statistical Work; Drawings. 

The field work of the survey was completed on May 28. 

During the progress of the work the members of the survey 
staff were in constant consultation, and the nature and scope of 
the report gradually shaped itself while we were in Salt Lake 
City. Before leaving the city the report was outlined, in some 
detail, and formed the subject of discussion for a number of even- 
ings. As an outgrowth of this discussion the conclusions here 
presented were agreed upon. 

To facilitate the work of the survey, as well as the writing of 
the different chapters, each member of the survey staff gave par- 
ticular attention to the parts which he was to organize in written 
form. Since leaving Salt Lake City each member of the staff 
has written the parts assigned to him, the drawings to illustrate 
the conclusions have been made, and all have been submitted 
to the director, who has organized and unified the report. The 



viii Director's Letter of Transmittal 

responsibility for the report as a whole rests with the director of 
the survey, though proper credit for the work done on the different 
chapters by the members of the survey staff is indicated in the 
body of the report. 

In preparing the report we have tried to commend the good 
features of your school system, and to use criticism only as a basis 
for constructive recommendations. The larger aspects of your 
problem relate to buildings, teachers, and finance, and these have 
naturally received the major emphasis. It is hoped that the survey 
may prove of much service to your board in handling the educa- 
tional problems with v/hich you have to deal, and in securing the 
new legislation which is so necessary if your schools are to make 
the progress they ought to make. A city of the character of yours 
cannot afford to rest content with the present situation. 

It is also hoped that the people of your city may find much 
in the report that will be of interest to them and will serve to 
give them a more intelligent conception of the magnitude and 
intricacy of the problems of public education in a city such as 
yours. 

The rapidity with which we were able to do the work is in part 
due to the courteous and helpful assistance rendered the members 
of the survey staff by every one with whom we had to deal. Es- 
pecially is an expression of appreciation due to the entire office force 
of the different administrative departments of the school system, 
the school principals, and the teachers who assisted in the grading 
of the pupil tests. I also wish to take this opportunity to express 
my appreciation of the large capacity for work on the part of those 
associated with me on the survey. 

Respectfully submitted, 

Ellwood p. Cubberley, 

Director oj the Survey. 

Stanford University, California, 
June 30, 1915. 



DIRECTOR'S NOTE TO THE SECOND EDITION 

The original edition of this report, pubHshed by the Board of 
Education of Salt Lake City, having become exhausted, the op- 
portunity has been availed of carefully to revise the chapters, 
make a few desirable corrections, and add a small amount of more 
recent supplementary material. In its present form it is felt that 
this survey report not only forms a commendatory document 
for the city concerned, and especially for those who have been re- 
sponsible for its educational development, but also provides 
superintendents and principals of schools and students of educa- 
tional administration generally with a document worthy of very 
careful study. 

E. P. C. 

April 6, 1916. 



CONTENTS 

Page 
Publishers' Preface v 

Letter of Transmittal vii 

I. ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION 

Chapter 

I. The Problem Before Us 3 

Position of the city — Comparative isolation of the city — • Growth in 
population — Character of the population — • Percentage of children — • 
Occupations in the city — Wealth of the city — The city and its 
needs — Order of procedure 

II. The Organization or the School System ..... 21 

General state control — Carrying out the state purpose — A Board's 
proper functions — The Salt Lake City organization — Committees 
and departments — Present organization wrong in principle — • Right 
principles in school organization — A proper administrative reorgani- 
zation — The public and the superintendent — A more fundamental 
reorganization desirable — Summary of recommendations 

III. Administration of the Educational Department. 36 

Work of the educational department — The supervisory staff — The 
present special supervision — Further supervisory needs — The worth 
of supervision — The school principals — Reasons for this difference 
in Salt Lake City — The premium on individual initiative 

IV. The Teaching Staff 47 

Growth of the school system — Position of Salt Lake City as to teach- 
ers — Other bad features of the teacher situation — The salary sched- 
ules — Comparative salaries paid — Conclusions as to teachers 

-s V. School Census and School Attendance 59 

The increase in both — A school census bureau — Value of such rec- 
ords in locating school buildings — Enforcement of compulsory attend- 
ance — Where the schools are increasing — Pupils completing the 
high-school course 

II. THE WORK OF THE SCHOOLS 
•^ VI. The Printed Courses of Study 71 

Order of procedure — Opinions and tests 

1 . The kindergartens - — The kindergarten theory — More kinder- 
gartens needed 

2. The courses of study for the elementary schools — How the courses 
of study were made — What the courses prescribe — Diversity in time 
allotments — Pupils who cannot accomplish the minimum 

xi 



xii Contents 

Chapter Page 

3. The school subjects in detail 

(i) Morals, manners, and civics — Prominence given to this 
subject 

(2) The language or English group — Emphasis on English 
work — Reading and literature — Good oral reading — Where 
improvements might be made — Phonics — Language and 
grammar — Spirit of the upper-grade work 

(3) SpelUng — Directions for the work in spelling — Time given 
to spelUng 

(4) Writing — The method used 

(5) History, civics, and sociology — The general plan — At- 
tention to local liistory — Excellent features of the course 

(6) Nature study — The printed outhne — Diversity in kind 
and amount of work done — School and home gardening 

(7) Arithmetic — Nature of the printed course — The teaching 
observed 

(8) Geography — The course good — The instruction observed 
(q) Music — The instruction observed 

(10) Art and construction — Need for more supervision — The 
art and handwork outhnes — Drawing in the lower grades — 
Modehng — Other constructional activities 

(11) Manual training — A poor course of study — Work needs 
enlarging — Suggestions for improvement 

(12) Domestic arts and science 

(13) Physical training 

nI VII. The Instruction and Supervision as Seen: De- 
sirable Extensions no 

1. The instruction and supervision as seen — The qualit}' of instruction 
— Classwork observed — An observed characteristic — The principals 
and their work — • The supervision of work in the common branches — 
Promotion of pupils — Types of examination tests used — The qual- 
ity of the grade supervision 

2. Desirable extensions — The Junior high school — The plan as yet 
imperfectly developed — Types of courses needed — Vocational train- 
ing — Vocations in Salt Lake City — Vocational education needed — 
The Senior high schools — Ungraded classes 

VIII. The Efficiency of the Instruction Measured . 130 

Purpose of this section of the report — Extent of the tests made — 
Nature of tests given — What such tests should reveal — How the 
tests were conducted 

(i) The test in spelling — Status of spelling in the city's curricu- 
lum — The test and how it was conducted — The results of 
the test — Results of the test by individuals — Uneven ability 
shown — Comparison with three other cities 

(2) The test in composition — Nature and method of the com- 
position test — ■ The results of the test — ■ Children poorly classi- 
fied for language work — Samples of average composition — Salt 
Lake City's composition work — Conclusions and recommenda- 
tions 

(3) The writing test — Writing in the school curriculum — How 
the writing was measured — Results by schools and by grades — 
Variability among individuals in the same grade — Comparison 
with other cities — How well the average child can write — 
Needed changes in instruction 



Contents xiii 

Chapter Page 

(4) The test in reading — Reading in the course of study — How 
the reading was tested — Results of the test — Variation be- 
tween individuals — The speed test — The problem the schools 
must meet 

(s) The tests in arithmetic — Arithmetic in the course of study 
— How the arithmetic was tested — Results of tests in the 
fundamentals — Widely different results in different schools — 
Comparison with other cities — Accuracy in use of number com- 
binations — The reasoning test — Comparison with other cities 
in reasoning test 

(6) Summary and recommendations — The use of standardized 
tests 

IX. The Progress of Children Through the Schools . 194 

Importance of proper school progress — Age and grade distribution — 
High percentage of retarded pupils — Distribution of the retarded 
pupils — Conditions in one room — A proper redistribution of the 
pupils — The fifth grade as an example of uneven distribution — "Re- 
peaters" — Causes of retardation — Age at entering the first grade — 
Other explanations for retardation — Subnormal and backward chil- 
dren — Mental classification groups — Children examined by intelli- 
gence tests — The measuring scale used — Backward children studied 

— Feeble-irdnded children — These waste both the teacher's time and 
their own — Number of such found in every city — The ungraded school 

— Mistaken aim of the ungraded school — Proper training for such 
pupils — ^The so-called ungraded rooms — In reahty "Batavia" 
rooms — What is needed — The principal of such a school — Un- 
graded rooms for the different schools — Exceptional children — 
Typical cases found — The problem of delinquency — Summary^ of 
reconmiendations 

III. BUILDINGS AND HEALTH 

X. The School Plant 229 

The present buildings — The school sites — Size of school grounds — 
Waste of space in buildings — The result of such excess — Lighting — 
Light tests -— Heating — Ventilation — Other factors in ventilation 

— Poor ventilation common — Basement and hall classrooms — These 
should be abandoned — School desks — Blackboards — Cloakrooms 

— Special rooms — Open-air schools — School baths — Toilets — 
Drinking fountains — Roller towels — Janitor service — Need for 
greater cleanUness — Fire protection — Quality of construction and 
costs — Repairs — Summary and recommendations 

XL Health Supervision 269 

Standards for comparison — OflBcers and assistants — Scope and 
nature of work — Costs — Stages in the development of health service 

— The second stage in development — The third stage — Health su- 
pervision becomes an educational service — Nature of the school health 
work in Salt Lake City — Stage in development represented — Results 
from the present service — Effectiveness of the school nurse — Expan- 
sions planned by the health commissioner — Health conditions of Salt 
Lake City school children — Summarizing the data on health condi- 
tions among the children — Headaches — Ears and hearing — Eyes 
and vision — Nose and throat troubles — Teeth — General weakness 

— Mentally or morally exceptional children — Speech defects — • Mal- 
nutrition — Health work should be extended — Conclusions and 
recommendations 



xiv Contents 

Chapter Page 

XII. Physical Education, Playground Activities, and 
Hygiene Teaching 294 

1. Physical education — Two types of physical education — The type 
in Salt Lake City — An average and fair example of the indoor games 

— Other exercises seen — Character of the yard play — Play teachers 
needed — Physical education in the high schools — The militarj' drill 

— Better physical training desirable 

2. Playground activities — Small school playgrounds — Larger use 
of playgrounds desirable — Vacation playground activities 

3. Hygiene teaching — The present course of instruction — Practical 
instruction — The buildings negative the instruction — Summary 
and recommendations 

IV. FINANCES 

XIII. The Financial Problem 315 

City costs for maintenance — Costs per capita for schools — Why these 
figures are misleading — A real basis for comparing school costs — The 
median western cost — Where Salt Lake City stands — Wealth and 
tax rates — Need for a larger school tax — The remedy a legislative 
one — Distribution of expenditures — Distribution of expenditures 
during the next two years 



APPENDIX 

A Suggested Law for the Management of the Salt 

Lake City School District 335 

Schools in cities of the first class — The board of education — Conduct 
of elections — Organization of board — Executive officers — Superin- 
tendent of schools — Clerk and purchasing agent — Treasurer — Su- 
perintendent of buildings — Superintendent of attendance and census 

— Superintendent of health work — Annual report — Annual budget 

— Annual school tax — Other powers 

Index 341 



PART I 

Organization and Administration 



SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND 
ADMINISTRATION 

CHAPTER n 
THE PROBLEM BEFORE US 

POSITION OF THE CITY 

IT always leads to a clearer understanding of a problem 
such as we have before us for study if we first locate the 
city with which we are to deal. By this is meant not its 
geographical location, as that is well known, but rather its 
social and economic location among cities of its size and 
class. From such a study of the social and economic posi- 
tion and relationships the problem of public education, 
which is essentially a social and economic problem, stands 
out more distinctly than it otherwise would do. Such a 
social and economic study we shall make before proceeding 
to a detailed study of the accomplishments and needs of the 
educational organization of the city. 

For the purpose of this study we shall compare Salt 
Lake City with a number of other cities of its size and class. 
In doing this we shall use in part the twenty-five other north- 
ern and western cities which, by the United States Census of 
1 910, were classed as growing cities and as having, at that 
time, between 75,000 and 125,000 inhabitants. As Salt Lake 
City had a population of 92,777 in 1910, and is estimated as 

* Chapters I to V inclusive were written by Professor EUwood P. Cub- 
berley, Director of the Survey. — Publishers. 

3 



4 School Organization and Administratimi 

now having a population of approximately 110,000, it will 
be seen that this group of cities includes those of a size and 
class with which Salt Lake City may properly be compared. 
For purposes of comparing Salt Lake City with western 
cities alone, another table of sixteen distinctly western cities, 
all of which had 25,000 or more inhabitants in 19 10, will 
also at times be used. For all these cities the Reports of the 
United States Census for ipio, and the United States Cen- 
sus Bureau's annual Statistics of Cities, provide good data 
for comparative purposes. 

COMPARATIVE ISOLATION OF THE CITY 

One of the most conspicuous features of Salt Lake City, 
and one which in a way modifies its activities and needs, is 
its comparative isolation. One must travel to the east as far 
as Denver before one finds a city of its class, and to the west 
as far as Sacramento. Within a radius of 700 miles there 
is not only no community the size of Salt Lake City, but 
within this same radius but three cities having more than 
15,000 inhabitants are found. One of these is the neighbor- 
ing city of Ogden, and the other two are 400 miles to the 
north, in Idaho and Montana. In traveling to the eastward 
the summit of the continental divide must be crossed, while 
to the westward the desert and the Sierra Nevada Mountains 
block the way. 

Beautifully situated on a rising slope between the Wasatch 
and the Oquirrh ranges of mountains, in a country rich in 
mineral and agricultural resources and in a valley of great 
fertility, with the state university and the state capitol within 
its bounds, the city stands as tlie mineral, agricultural, po- 
litical, financial, social, and educational center of the state, 
and, to a large degree, of the inter-mountain plateau as well. 
Blessed with a fine climate, plenty of good water, abundant 
sunshine, good educational facilities, and a progressive 
people, the city has attracted to itself a population of good 
character and great virility, and one which has made for the 



The Problem Before Us 5 

city a somewhat independent position along social, educa- 
tional, financial, and industrial lines. Forced to depend 
largely upon itself, the city has developed in a small way 
into a manufacturing and producing center of some local 
importance. The mining industry tributary to it is of large 
commercial value, and is destined to remain such for a long 
time to come. Notwithstanding these developments, how- 
ever, the city is essentially a home city, its population con- 
sisting very largely of a substantial middle class of the 
home-building and home-owning type, interested in good 
government, good schools, and the promotion of the home. 

GROWTH IN POPULATION 

The growth of the city within the past quarter century 
has been very rapid. This may be seen from the following 
tabular statement : 



Year 


Population 


Per Cent, of Increase 
During Period 


1880 

1890 

1900 

1910 

191S 


20,768 
44,843 
53,531 
92,777 
110,000 * 


II5-9 
19.4 

73-3 



' Estimate for July i, 1915. 



Among the cities of its size and class it was exceeded in 
rate of growth, from 1900 to 19 10, by but three of the 
twenty-five cities we shall use for comparative purposes, as 
may be seen from the Table No. I, on page 6. 

Of the distinctively western cities, with which Salt Lake 
City will also be compared for items of expense, only the 
Pacific Coast cities exceed Salt Lake City in rate of growth 
from 1900 to 1 9 10. 



School Organization a)id Administration 



TABLE I 
Size and Rate of Growth of Twenty-six Selected Cities* 



City 



Population, 
1910 



Per cent. 
Rate of In- 
crease, 
1900-1910 



Troy, N.Y 

Somerv'ille, Mass 

Duluth, Minn 

Youngstovvn, Ohio 

Yonkers, N.Y 

Kansas City, Kan 

Tacoma, Wash 

Lawrence, Mass 

Des Moines, la 

Springfield, Mass 

Lynn, Mass 

SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH 

Camden, N.J 

Reading, Pa 

New Bedford, Mass 

Trenton, N.J 

Hartford, Conn 

Albany, N.Y 

Bridgeport, Conn 

Spokane, Wash 

Cambridge, Mass 

Lowell, Mass 

Grand Rapids, Mich 

Dayton, Ohio 

Fall River, Mass 

Omaha, Neb 



76,813 
77,936 
78,466 
79,066 
79.S03 
82,331 
83,743 
85,892 
86,368 
88,926 
89,336 
92,777 
94,538 
96,071 
96,652 
96,815 

98,915 
100,253 
102,054 
104.402 
104,839 
106,294 
112,571 
116,577 

119,295 
124,096 



26.6 

25-3 
48.1 
76.2 
66.S 
60.1 
122.0 

37-3 
39-0 
43-3 
30-4 
73.3 

24-5 
21.7 

54-8 
32.1 

23-9 
6.5 
43-7 
183.3 
14.1 
11.9 
28.6 
36.6 

13-8 
21.0 



This means that Salt Lake City was among the few most 
rapidly growing American cities during the period. Aver- 
aged over the entire ten years from 1900 to 1910 the in- 

* This table contains every northern and western city which in 1910 had 
between 75,000 and 125,000 inhabitants, and which had increased in popu- 
lation during the preceding decade. 



The Problem Before Us 7 

crease was equal to 11.2 persons per day. As the rate of 
growth, judged by the number of children in the schools, 
was more rapid toward the end of the period than during 
the earlier part of it, the rate toward the latter part of the 
period must have been at least as high as fifteen persons per 
day. The increase in the number of children in school 
would indicate that a growth at least as rapid as this still 
continues. 

CHARACTER OF THE POPULATION 

In character the population is mostly of excellent racial 
stock. Figure i shows that 78 out of every 100 persons in 
the city, in 19 10, were born in the United States, and 41 
out of every 100 were born of parents both of whom also 
were born here. This is about average for all northern and 
western cities, being higher than in the manufacturing 
centers of the east and lower than in the residential cities of 
the west. Of the 21 per cent, who were of foreign birth, 
it will be noticed that 9.3 per cent, came from English- 
speaking lands, leaving but 1 1.8 per cent, from non-English- 
speaking countries. Three-fourths of these were from Ger- 
man, Austrian, or Scandinavian countries. But i.i per cent, 
were, at that time, from countries to the south and east of 
Europe (Italians. Greeks, the Balkan States, Armenia, 
Turkey) and but eight-tenths of i per cent, were of the 
negro race. The miscellaneous group included but few 
Orientals. 

This means that the city, in 1910, had a particularly select 
class of people, with no serious educational or social problem 
arising from the presence of a large number of foreign 
born. Orientals, or negroes. Coming from countries where 
primary education has long prevailed, the number of illiter- 
ates in the population is naturally low. The average for the 
city in 1910 was 1.6 per cent., as against y.y per cent, for 
the United States as a whole, and 6.9 per cent, for the Moun- 
tain States. The foreign-born element showed an illiteracy 



8 



School Organization and Administration 



of 4.4 per cent., and the native born but 0.25 per cent., with 
most of this among the few negroes. 

The number of foreign born from the south and east of 
Europe has since increased, both in actual numbers and in 
percentage of the total population, and their settlement 



/ NATIVE BORN, 


NATIVE BORN, \ 


OF NATIVE PARENTS 


ONE OR BOTH PARENTS \ 




FOREIGN 1 


41.1^ /\ ^^-^fo 1 


\ ypOREIGNV 1 


\ ^T Corn ys. / 


\ Jr^yf^^liii^^^^^^ 1 


\ M Sll 1 "X ^^ # 




\ ^f ill 1 / \ '^ ^^ # 


\ Jr ill \ t\ ^ N. / 


\ ^W /IE] 1 ^ \ ^S" ft. ^v £ 


\ >^f flPl^ 1 ^ \ ^ ^^ M 


\ Mil H\ ^\ y 


^^W A^/ ^ kfl^i ^ **/ ^ \ _^r 


^^^^W ^ f/j^l ^^1 \ .^^ 


^^^^ /h^ / ^ I \ ^^^^ 




^ --^-^ 



Fig. I. The Elements of the Population of Salt Lake City 

largely in that part of the city lying along the railroad 
tracks is certain to develop there what will in time become 
a serious educational and social problem. In a sense it has 
already become such. With the marked turn of immigration 
from the north and west of Europe to the countries to the 
south and east, that has characterized the immigration of 



The Problem Before Us 9 

the past fifteen years, Salt Lake City cannot hope to escape 
receiving an increasing percentage of these more poorly 
educated and less well-developed racial stocks. 



TABLE II 

Composition of the Population of 26 Selected Cities 



City 



Percentage of the 
Whole Who Are 



Native 
Born of 
Native 
Parents 



Native 

Born 
with One 
or Both 
Parents 
Foreign 

Born 



Foreign 
Born 



Negroes 



I. 

2. 
3- 
4- 
5- 
6. 

7- 

8. 

9- 
10. 
11. 
12. 

13- 
14. 

IS- 
16. 

17- 
18. 
19. 
20. 
21. 
22. 

23- 

24. 

25- 

26. 



Reading, Pa 

Des Moines, la 

Dayton, Ohio 

Kansas City, Mo 

Camden, N.J 

Spokane, Wash. 

Albany, N.Y 

Tacoma, Wash 

Omaha, Neb 

Troy, N.Y 

SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH 

Trenton, N.J 

Springfield, Mass 

Somerville, Mass 

Lynn, Mass 

Grand Rapids, Mich. . . . 
Youngstown, Ohio . . . . 

Hartford, Conn 

Yonkers, N.Y 

Bridgeport, Conn 

Cambridge, Mass 

Duluth, Minn 

Lowell, Mass 

New Bedford, Mass. . . . 

Lawrence, Mass 

Fall River, Mass 

United States as a Whole 



77.8 
62.3 
62.0 
58.3 
52.4 
52.3 
44.4 

43-6 
42.6 
42.0 
41.1 
40.0 
40.2 
38.3 
2>7-'^ 
36.2 

32.4 
31-4 
27.1 
26.6 
24.4 
19.7 

19-5 
19.4 
13.6 



12.2 
22.3 
2 1. 9 
17.8 

24-5 
26.1 

36.4 
28.S 

31-9 
37-1 
37.0 
30.2 
32.2 
34-5 

38.0 
33-7 
35-2 
37-5 
36.6 
38.0 
40.6 
39-5 

37-9 
43-7 



9-2% 
12.0 
11.9 
12.6 
16.6 
20.3 
18.1 
25.6 
21.8 
20.1 
21.1 
27.2 

25-9 
26.9 
30.6 
25.2 

314 
31.6 

35-5 

39-1 
40.9 
44.1 
48.1 
42.6 



J. 



54-1 



20.5 



14.7 



0.8% 

3-4 
4.2 

II-3 
6.4 
0.7 
i.o 
0.9 
3-6 
0.8 
0.8 
2.7 
1-7 
0-3 
0.8 
0.6 

2.4 
1.8 
1.9 
1-3 
4-S 
0-5 
0.1 
30 
0-3 
0.3 



10.7 



lO 



School Organization and Administration 



Table II compares Salt Lake City with other cities of 
its size and class in the matter of the elements of its 
population. 



PERCENTAGE OF CHILDREN 

In the percentage of children in the total population, Salt 
Lake City ranks high among western cities. The general 
characteristics of a western city are a marked preponder- 
ance of males, a small percentage of married males, and a 
small number of children. In these respects Salt Lake City 
is an exception, as it has but a small preponderance of 
males, a large percentage of the males are married, and in 

TABLE III 

Percentage of Children in the Total Population Compared for 
Western Cities 



City 



2. 
3- 
4- 
5- 
6. 

7- 
8. 

9- 

lO. 

II. 

12. 

13- 

14. 

IS- 
16. 

17- 



Ogden, Utah 

SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH 
Colorado Springs, Colo. . . . 

Tacoma, Wash 

Denver, Colo 

Butte, Mont 

Berkeley, Cal 

Spokane, Wash 

Oakland, Cal 

San ]os€, Cal 

Pasadena, Cal 

San Diego, Cal 

Los Angeles, Cal 

Seattle, Wash 

Sacramento, Cal 

Portland, Ore 

San Francisco, Cal 

United States as a Whole . . 



Percentage of Children 



S to 15 Years 

of Age, 

Inclusive 




Under 15 

Years of 

Age 



32.1 
29.6 

233 
23.6 
23.1 

239 
22.7 
23.2 
22.5 
21.4 
20.3 
20.2 
20.1 
19.7 
1Q.8 
18.8 
18.9 



17.4 



27-3 



The Problem Before Us 



II 



number of children it ranks with the markedly foreign-born 
manufacturing cities of the east and the cities of the south. 
Only one other western city, Ogden, exceeds it in percentage 
of children. This may be seen from Table III. 

Distributed by age groups the population is as shown in 
Figure 2. From this figure it will be seen that Salt Lake 



UNITED STATES 

UNOtR 


SALT LAKE CITY 

3 XfARS 


9.9^ 1 


■^§■■1 /f.4^. 


5 TO 


14 YEARS 


17.4 « 1 


I^HJ^IHHH 'y'^ 


IS TO 


3.* TtARS 


zo.it 1 


44 YEARS 32.9 ?J 


332% 25 TO 
1 


1 

45 TO 


64 /EARS 


19.Z% \ 


■■^■H '3.6 


oven 
4.0% 1 


6^EARS 



Fig. 2. Age Distribution of the Population 



City is essentially a community of young people, there being 
an excess of children and a shortage of those 45 years of 
age or over. The United States Census figures gave 4.6 per- 
sons to a family and 5.2 persons to a dwelling for the city in 
1 9 10. Such a condition should mean a live and vigorous 
city, — a city of young people, and with their families as 
yet young. Such a community is usually self-reliant and re- 
sourceful, and willing to provide the best it can afford for 
its children. 



12 



School Organization and Administration 



The following table compares Salt Lake City with other 
cities of its size and class in the matter of the proportion of 
children in the total population: 



TABLE IV 

Showing the Percentage of Children in the Total Population 



City 



Fall River, Mass 

Yonkers, N.Y 

SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH 

Camden, N.Y 

Lawrence, Mass 

Cambridge, Mass 

New Bedford, Mass 

Duluth, Minn 

Grand Rapids, Mich 

Lowell, Mass 

Youngstown, Ohio 

Kansas City, Kan 

Bridgeport, Conn 

Hartford, Conn 

Trenton, NJ 

Des Moines, la 

Reading, Pa 

Springfield, Mass 

Somerville, Mass 

Dayton, Ohio 

Omaha, Neb 

Tacoma, Wash 

Lynn, Mass 

Albany, N.Y 

Troy, N.Y 

Spokane, Wash 

United States as a Whole . . 



Percentage of Children 



5 to 15 Years 

of Age, 

Inclusive 



20.4 
1S.9 
18.5 
18.1 
17.9 

17-5 
17.2 
17.2 
17.0 
17.0 
16.9 
16.8 
16.8 
16.8 
16.8 
16.6 
iS-9 
iS-9 
15-6 
iS-4 

15-2 

15.2 
15.0 
14.9 
14.6 
14-5 



Under 15 

Years of 

Age 



32.1 
29.9 
29.6 

28.4 
28.3 
27.8 
28.9 
26.S 
27.0 
26.8 
27.9 
27.9 
27.2 
26.6 
26.6 
25.6 
27.2 

253 
26.0 

245 
23-7 
23.6 
24.0 
22.6 
23.2 
23.2 



17-4 



27-3 



The Problem Before Us 



13 



The significance of this large number of children of 
school age may be better appreciated if it be stated that, for 
a city the size of Salt Lake City (estimated now at i io,cxdo), 




Fig. 3. PoRTLA>a), Oregon, and Salt Lake City Compared as to Children 

In making the school survey in Portland in 1913, as in Salt Lake City in igis. the number of 
children actually in the schools early in May was taken in each place. Reducing the Portland 
fii^res so as to give the results if the city were the same size as Salt Lake City (110,000), we get 
the above figure. The black represents the children in Portland, and the white represents the ex- 
cess in each grade for Salt Lake City for the same total population. Portland at that time had 
nine grades in its elementary school course. The increased number of schools which Salt Lake 
City must maintain per thousand of its population will at once be evident. 



every increase of i per cent, in the percentage of the popu- 
lation between 5 and 15 (the so-called school age) means 
at least 1,000 more children enrolled in the schools, 30 more 
teachers to be provided for the schools, and approximately 



14 School Organization and Administration 

two more school buildings to be erected within the city. Put 
another way, Salt Lake City must provide 50 per cent, more 
teachers and buildings per 1,000 of its total population 
than do such cities as Seattle, Portland, Sacramento, and 
San Francisco, and 30 per cent, more than do Tacoma and 
Denver, to be able to maintain merely equivalent schools. 
This is well shown by Fig. 3. It is the price the city must 
pay for its large families and its large excess of children. 



OCCUPATIONS IN THE CITY 

It was stated on a preceding page that Salt Lake City 
had developed a somewhat independent position for itself 
along commercial and industrial lines. High freight rates 
have compelled the city to make many articles usually 
brought in from the outside, with the result that many small 
industries have been developed which afford employment 
and contribute to the wealth of the community. Sixty-five 
per cent, of the factories of the State of Utah are in Salt 
Lake City or county, and these factories furnished an out- 
put in 1914 valued at $61,450,000, and paid out in wages 
nearly $10,000,000. Located as the city is, and with abun- 
dant raw materials in many lines close at hand, it is a natural 
manufacturing community. 

According to the census figures for 19 10. 40.7 per cent, 
of the total population of the city were engaged in some 
occupation, with the distribution as follows: 

Engaged in mechanical and manufacturing industries 12.5% 

Engaged in trade 7.0 

Engaged in domestic and personal service 5.4 

Engaged in transportation 4.6 

Engaged in clerical occupations 4.4 

Engaged in professional service 3.6 

Engaged in public service 1.7 

Engaged in extraction of minerals 0.9 

Engaged in agricultural pursuits 0.6 



The Problem Before Us 



15 



Compared with all other American cities, Salt Lake City 
gives the following results for each 1,000 persons employed, 
distributed by occupation and by sex: 



TABLE V 

Number Engaged in Each Occupation, for Each 1,000 Employed 





Males 


Females 


Occupation 


In Salt 
Lake City 


In all 
Cities 


In Salt 
Lake City 


In all 
Cities 


1. Manufacturing and mechani- 

cal industries 

2. Trade 


339 
189 

74 
133 
94 
71 
52 
30 

18 


473 

175 

69 

119 

82 

43 

23 

6 

10 


172 

97 

365 

26 

164 

158 

I 



17 


313 
96 


3. Domestic and personal service 

4. Transportation 

5. Clerical occupations .... 

6. Professional services .... 

7. Public service 

8. Extraction of minerals . . . 
g. Agricultural and animal hus- 
bandry 


348 
18 

135 

88 





2 


Totals 


1,000 


1,000 


1,000 


1,000 



An examination of the detailed distribution under any 
one occupation shows that almost all the industries, trades, 
and forms of service are followed. Under manufacturing 
and the mechanical industries the occupations concerned 
with the building- trades predominate, though the machinery 
trades employ quite a large number of men ; in transporta- 
tion, the railway service predominates ; in trade and the cleri- 
cal occupations there is a general distribution from clerks 
and stenographers to commercial travelers and retail deal- 
ers ; while in professional service designing and engineering 
work predominate. A rather unusual percentage of men 
are engaged in domestic and personal service. As will be 



1 6 School Organization and Administration 

pointed out later on, in connection with the discussion of the 
courses of study in the schools, such a distribution of occu- 
pations calls for a rather varied educational experience in 
the schools. 

WEALTH OF THE CITY 

We pass finally to a study of the real wealth of the com- 
munity, to see how able it is to provide the type of education 
needed for its large number of children. The best basis 
for comparison here is the average actual (not assessed) 
wealth per capita of the total population. To obtain the 
actual wealth we must take the per capita assessed wealth, 
divide it by the basis of assessment, and multiply the result 
by lOO. This is the same as putting all cities on a lOO per 
cent, basis of assessment, and hence compares their actual 
wealth. Using the figures given in the United States Cen- 
sus Bureau's annual publication, Statistics of Cities for 
ipij,^ we thus get the following comparative table for the 
twenty-five cities of the size and class of Salt Lake City with 
which we have proposed to compare it : 

• This was at the time the most recent issue of this valuable year book. 



The Problem Before Us 



17 



TABLE VI 
Assessed and Real Wealth per Capita of the Total Population 



City 



Camden, N.J 

Trenton, N.J 

Reading, Pa 

Hartford, Conn 

Lowell, Mass 

Fall River, Mass 

Lawrence, Mass 

Troy, N.Y 

Somerville, Mass 

Lynn, Mass 

Des Moines, la 

New Bedford, Mass 

Bridgeport, Conn 

Yonkers, N.Y 

Kansas City, Kan 

Grand Rapids, Mich. . . . 

Cambridge, Mass 

Albany, N.Y 

Duluth, Minn 

Dayton, Ohio 

Tacoma, Wash 

Omaha, Neb 

Youngstown, Ohio 

Springfield, Mass 

Spokane, Wash 

SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH 



Average for the Group 
Median for the Group 



Assessed 

Wealth 

per Capita 



$593-69 
710-43 
553-41 
593-69 
771-65 
789.92 
807.67 

825-33 
846.08 

848.39 
232.15 
944.12 
944.91 
965.00 
985.60 

772.49 
1063.30 
1014.16 

547-64 
1228.76 

742.33 
249.82 
1526. II 
1536.11 
669.77 
589.23 



Basis of 
Assessment 



100 
100 

75 
80 
100 
100 
100 
98 
100 
100 

25 
100 
100 
100 
100 

75 

100 

89 

46 

100 

60 

20 

100 

100 

42 

35 



Real Wealth 
per Capita 



$593-69 
710.43 
737-88 
742.11 
771-65 
789.92 
807.67 
842.18 
846.08 
848.39 
932.60 
944.12 
944.91 
965.00 
985.60 
1029.99 
1063.30 

1139-51 
1190.52 
1228.76 
1237.21 
1249.10 
1526.11 
1536.11 
1666.12 
1683.52 



51038.94 
954.96 



This shows Salt Lake City to be the richest city in the 
group. Compared with Camden, Fall River, Lawrence, and 
Yonkers, cities which have somewhere near the same per- 
centage of children (see Table IV), Salt Lake City is indeed 
a wealthy city. Compared with western cities Salt Lake 



1 8 School Organization and Administration 

City occupies a somewhat middle position, being a little 
higher than the average for the group, and markedly ex- 
ceeded only by Portland, San Francisco, and the three 
wealthy residential cities of southern California. This may 
be seen from the following table : 



TABLE VII 

Assessed and Real Wealth per Capita for Western Cities ' 



I. 

2. 

3- 
4- 
5- 
6. 

7- 
8. 

9- 
10. 
II. 

12. 

13- 
14. 

15- 
16. 



City 



Butte, Mont 

San Jose, Cal 

Denver, Colo 

Colorado Springs, Colo. . . . 

Tacoma, Wash 

Berkeley, Cal 

Oakland, Cal 

Seattle, Wash 

Spokane, Wash 

SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH 

Sacramento, Cal 

Pasadena, Cal 

Portland, Ore 

Los Angeles, Cal 

San Francisco, Cal 

San Diego, Cal 

Average for the Group . . . 
Median for the Group . . . 



Assessed 

Wealth 

per Capita 



$596.91 
64S.61 

563-25 
400.77 

742.33 

822.68 

738.96 

721.24 

699.77 

589.23 

1042.03 

12S0.94 

1212.40 

880.20 

1193.32 

1051.05 



Basis of 

Assessment 



75 
60 

50 
33 
60 
60 
50 
45 
42 
35 
58 
66 

63 
46 

45 
39 



Real 

Wealth 

per Capita 



$795-88 
10S1.02 
1126.50 
1202.31 
1237.22 

1371-13 
1477.92 
1602.77 
1666.12 
1683.52 
1796.60 
1921.41 
1924.44 
1930.87 
2561.82 
2695.00 



51630.85 
1634-45 



These two tables show Salt Lake City as of large per 
capita wealth, even though the number of children in the 
total population is large. If the city had the usual small 
proportion of children found in western cities, it w^ould al- 
most equal Pasadena, Portland, or Los Angeles in its per 

* Ogden unfortunately cannot be included in this table, for the reason 
that the United States Census Bureau docs not publish financial statistics 
for cities which in 1910 had a population of less than 30,000. 



The Problem Before Us 19 

capita wealth. As it is, it must be classed as among one of 
the few very rich cities of the United States. When we 
remember, further, that the city has very few really rich 
people, we can appreciate what a wide distribution of prop- 
erty there must be among the population. It is essentially a 
city of the so-called middle class. This should make the 
maintenance of any public enterprise, such as schools, a rel- 
atively easy matter. 

THE CITY AND ITS NEEDS 

We have then, for study, a rapidly growing western city 
of the best type. It is a city which, by reason of its compar- 
ative isolation, has developed an independence for itself 
which few cities are able to do or feel the need of doing. 
Its population is, as yet, very largely of the best American 
and foreign stocks, though a change in its character is 
beginning. 

The city is a city of young people, of large families, and 
of large per capita wealth. The pinch of competition, 
which in most places has led to a somewhat general reduc- 
tion in the size of families, has been scarcely felt here. 
There is still plenty of elbow room and plenty of opportu- 
nity. The city is characterized by the vigor and the confi- 
dence in itself which belongs to youth. 

The location of Salt Lake City makes it certain that it has 
a large future before it. This, the needs of its occupations 
and its industries, the general needs in our national life for 
good education for all, its large number of children of good 
stock, and the increasing number of children coming from 
homes of an inferior type, all alike make it important that 
tliis particular city maintain for its children as good an edu- 
cational system as it can possibly afford. Its large wealth, 
and, as will be shown later, its low per capita expense for 
city maintenance, make it possible for the city to afford as 
good an educational system as is to be found anywhere in 
the land. 



20 School Organization and Administration 

ORDER OF PROCEDURE 

Having now examined somewhat in detail the character 
and position of Salt Lake City among cities of its size and 
class, we shall next pass to an examination of the organiza- 
tion of its educational system, the scope and needs of the 
system provided, the school plant and its needs, the health 
and play needs, and the financial problem of the system. 



CHAPTER II 
THE ORGANIZATION OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM 

GENERAL STATE CONTROL 

TO provide for the education of its children the State of 
Utah has, in its constitution, made the maintenance of 
a general system of public schools a state duty, and has 
charged the legislature to provide for the establishment and 
maintenance of schools in all parts of the state. The public 
school system is, in the constitution, declared to include all 
schools from the kindergarten to and through the state uni- 
versity. Certain permanent funds to aid in the support of 
schools are dedicated to the purposes, the general control of 
the system is vested in a state board of education and a state 
superintendent of public instruction, rates of taxation for 
state aid for education are fixed, and the separate organiza- 
tion and control of city school systems are provided for. 

The educational provisions of the constitution of the state 
have been amplified in the school law, which now forms a 
substantial volume of one hundred and forty printed pages. 
The powers and duties of the state board of education and 
of the state superintendent of public instruction have been 
specified, in some detail ; the counties of the state have been 
organized into county-unit organizations, under the educa- 
tional oversight of county superintendents of schools; cities 
of the first and second class have been allowed to organize 
separately under city boards of education, and the powers 
and duties of such have been laid down at some length ; the 
schools have been made free to all, and the attendance of 
all children between the ages of eight and sixteen years 
has been made compulsory for thirty weeks each year in 
cities, and twenty weeks elsewhere in the state. 



2 2 School Organization and Administration 

CARRYING OUT THE STATE PURPOSE 

Education in Utah, as in practically all other American 
states, has been conceived as something of such great impor- 
tance to the future welfare of the state that it has not been 
felt safe to intrust it to the cities to manage. Education has 
been regarded as a " major claim " of each new generation 
on the one that has gone before — a form of debt which 
each generation owes to the new generation it brings into 
the world — and as such the state has not been willing to 
trust entirely the carrying out of this important obligation 
to local governmental units. Accordingly the state has pro- 
vided, by general law, for many details of local school ad- 
ministration, and has given boards of education power, 
within certain legal limits, to determine the sums needed 
for properly carrying out this state purpose. The qualifi- 
cations of members for boards of education, how they shall 
be elected, when they shall take office, how they may be 
removed, their compensation, the duties of the officers of 
the board, the department officers they may appoint, the 
general corporate powers of the board, their general powers 
and duties, how they shall estimate the city school tax, under 
what conditions and how they may incur indebtedness and 
issue bonds, and how they may erect school buildings, — 
all these matters are laid down, in some detail, in the school 
laws of the state instead of being left to the different cities 
to determine. 

The board of education, elected by the people to represent 
it in the management of their schools, in reality represents 
the state much more than it does the city. The state pur- 
pose of seeing that its future citizenship is properly educated 
is the important thing; the city is merely an agent of the 
state in the matter. The powers possessed by the board of 
education are derived from the state, and not from the city ; 
the state can add to or subtract from these, as it wills, or it 
could abolish the board of education entirely and substitute 
some other agency to do its work. If the board needs new 



Organization of School System 23 

or additional powers it must ask the legislature for them; 
if its funds are not sufficient for the work the legislature 
has given it to do it must present its case to the legislature, 
and ask for an increase in the school tax rate. 



A BOARD S PROPER FUNCTIONS 

The hoard of education, acting as a body, consequently 
acts for the state in the matter of school control. Since 
the people of the city are also citizens of the state — in the 
case of Salt Lake City they constitute one-fourth of the 
citizens of the entire state — the board of education also 
represents the citizens of the city as well. It represents 
them, however, in their capacity as citizens of the State of 
Utah, rather than as citizens of Salt Lake City. 

It represents them, though, not individually, but as a body, 
and only when in formal session. It is only by formal and 
recorded vote that boards of education can properly exercise 
any control. All individual direction of the schools, unless 
such individual power is formally delegated to the individ- 
ual member by vote of the board, is usurped direction. For 
such individual direction the state has provided other offi- 
cers, who devote their entire time to the work, and who are 
much more likely to direct the schools wisely and well. 
When a board of education directs the work of the schools 
properly, carefully selecting its executive officers, sustaining 
them in their official acts, and replacing them whenever they 
fail to act wisely or efficiently or honestly, it renders a con- 
spicuous service to the people of the community and to the 
state it serves. 

Whenever, on the contrary, the board assumes executive 
as well as legislative functions, begins to participate in exec- 
utive work instead of acting as a board for school control, 
and interferes with or usurps work which it should intrust 
to its executive officers, it almost invariably begins to lose 
the confidence of those whose confidence it should retain. 
The principals and teachers, and ultimately the people as 



24 School Organization and Administration 

well, lose confidence in its wisdom, with the inevitable result 
that the efficiency of the schools themselves is impaired. A 
fundamental principle of proper city school administration 
is that it is primarily the business of the board of education 
to receive reports as to conditions and needs, to weigh rec- 
ommendations, to determine the broader lines of policies, 
and to legislate, while it is primarily the business of the 
executive officers it employs to execute the legislation and 
policies which the board, after hearing reports and deliber- 
ating, has decided upon. 

It will be seen from the above statement of principles that 
a board of education for a city school system occupies a 
very important position, and that upon its good judgment 
as to what to do and what to let alone depends much of the 
success of the administration of the schools. By improper 
organization, by doing too much, by attempting to handle 
too many things, by interfering too much with the work of 
its executive officers, or by indecision as to purpose, a board 
of education may interfere seriously with the proper work- 
ing of the schools under its control, with the esprit dc corps 
of those who render service in its schools, and with the 
proper carrying out of that large and important state pur- 
pose for which they were elected to office. 

THE SALT LAKE CITY ORGANIZATION 

To carry out the state purpose in Salt Lake City the city 
has been classified by law as a city of the first class, and 
for the government of the schools in cities of the first class 
a board of education, consisting of ten members, two elected 
from each municipal ward in the city, has been provided. 
The term of office is four years, one member being elected 
from each municipal ward in December of the odd-num- 
bered years. The school corporation is separate and distinct 
from the municipal corporation willi which it is here coter- 
minous. So fully has this separation been accomplished 
that in the city auditor's reports, covering the different de- 



Organization of School System 25 

partmcnts and phases of work of the Salt Lake City corpo- 
ration, the school department docs not appear. The school 
district is a state corporation, existing- for the carrying out 
of a state purpose ; the city is a local organization pri- 
marily for local municipal government. They are separate 
and distinct corporations, though their boundaries and elec- 
torate are one and the same. 

The board of education has provided, under its rules and 
regulations, for the appointment of five standing commit- 
tees, each consisting of five members and the president of 
the board. These standing committees are (i) Rules, (2) 
School Law, (3) Teachers and School Work, (4) Building 
and Grounds, and (5) Finance. A careful reading of the 
minutes of the board for more than a year would seem to 
indicate that the first two committees are not especially im- 
portant ones, but that the other three are committees which 
transact a large amount of business and assume many im- 
portant functions. 

The board has further organized the administration of 
the school system under three separate and distinct depart- 
ments. These are ( i ) the clerical and purchasing depart- 
ment, in charge of a school clerk, (2) the building depart- 
ment, in charge of a superintendent of buildings, and (3) 
the educational department, in charge of a superintendent 
of schools. A treasurer is also appointed, to care for and 
pay out the school moneys. 

COMMITTEES AND DEPARTMENTS 

As far as could be ascertained by inquiry, by a reading of 
the official minutes of the proceedings of the board, and by 
an examination of the printed rules and regulations of the 
board of education, these three departments seem to be 
on a plane of theoretical equality, each handling the business 
within its own field somewhat independently of the other 
two. The school clerk works largely through the committee 
on finance, the superintendent of buildings largely through 



26 School Organization and Administration 

the committee on buildings and grounds, and the superin- 
tendent of schools largely through the committee on teachers 
and school work. These committees then report to the 
board of education, which serves as a coordinating body for 
the three separate administrative departments and the three 
important board committees. In effect, three separate 
boards exist, each large enough to be a board of education 
in itself, and each handling an important division of the edu- 
cational work of the city. To harmonize results the three 
boards meet together as a body, after they have come to 
independent decisions. 

The diagram on the following page shows the existing 
form of organization and the existing relationships. The 
board of education is shown as large and important, as it 
now is. Below it and intermediary between it and the heads 
of its departments are the board committees, and then come 
the heads of departments and their staffs. The position of 
any person on the diagram indicates his authority and re- 
sponsibility to those below him and above him, and the con- 
necting lines indicate lines of relationship and responsibil- 
ity. A lack of connecting lines in the same way indicates 
lack of coordinating authority or responsibility. 

PRESENT ORGANIZATION WRONG IN PRINCIPLE 

The inevitable result of such an arrangement is frequent 
and long committee meetings, much discussion, and board 
meetings often lasting until late at night. The constant 
tendency under such a system of administration is for the 
committees to become very important administrative bodies, 
and for the chairman of each to usurp some or many of the 
functions of the executive heads of departments. Espe- 
cially is this likely to prove dangerous in the case of the 
committee on teachers and school work, the chairman of 
which is very likely, almost unconsciously, to take over many 
of the functions that properly belong to the superintendent 
of schools and to become, as it were, a second head of the 



Organization of School System 



27 



r 










rt 




t'l' 


g 








iJf 




^i 




o 



^ 



(Xl 



28 School Organization and Administration 

educational department; passing, in turn, on all the super- 
intendent's recommendations as to teachers, principals, and 
supervisory officers, and substituting his opinion or the 
opinion of his committee for that of the superintendent as 
to the employment, retention, and service of members of 
the educational force. 

The present organization is not only wrong in principle, 
but it is fraught with continual danger of misunderstandings 
and trouble. The committees are too prominent in the ad- 
ministration, and the school clerk and the superintendent 
of buildings enjoy too large independence in action. An 
examination of the printed annual reports of the board for 
a number of years past would seem to indicate that the 
school clerk is the real head of the school system, rather 
than the superintendent of schools. His reports come first 
and are the most elaborate, and he, rather than the super- 
intendent of schools, discusses the question of finances and 
says what he thinks as to possible economies.^ The present 
large independence of the superintendent of buildings, es- 
pecially in the matter of repairs and alterations and the 

1 By way of illustration the following quotation from the clerk's report to 
the board, printed in the 24th annual report (1913-14), p. 16, may be cited: 

"For twenty years the cost per pupil has been steadily increasing, and if 
the special efforts put forth this year have stayed that advance, and in f;ict 
reduced the cost per pupil, there is no doubt that much more could be accom- 
plished by continuing the efforts for a more efficient and economical adminis- 
tration of our school system." 

Such a statement, well intended, no doubt, is nevertheless misleading, and 
only serves to raise hopes that cannot be realized without impairing the efficiency 
of the system. An analysis of the tables submitted in the clerk's reiwrt sliows 
that the reduction in cost mentioned was only made by employing chcajier 
teachers, increasing the number of pupils per teacher, and reducing the expenses 
for renewals and repairs. Such reductions could not be continued without seri- 
ously impairing the efficiency of the schools, yet the statement as i>rintcd leaves 
the opposite inference. As a matter of fact, the reduction in expenses by such 
means has gone too far now, and the printing of such a statement tends to make 
more difficult a change in the right direction. All such statements should meet 
with the approval of the superintendent of schools before being given to the 
public, and only serve to emphasize the necessity of having one and only one 
head of the administrative system. 



Organization of School System 29 

employment of janitors, is also fundamentally wrong, and 
is certain to result in expenditures which ought not to be 
made, and in the failure to perform work which ought to 
be performed. That it has done so is well pointed out in 
Chapter X. 

One gets the idea from reading a few years of the annual 
printed reports, and the rules and regulations of the board, 
that the educational department in the Salt Lake City school 
system occupies a rather inferior position in the administra- 
tive organization, and that it is allowed to exercise but little 
supervisory control over the other administrative depart- 
ments. Only the compulsory attendance work is specifically 
placed under the direction of the superintendent of schools. 
The underlying theory seems to be that the educational de- 
partment is a separate and isolated department instead of 
being the premier department of the whole system. 

RIGHT PRINCIPLES IN SCHOOL ORGANIZATION 

A thoroughly fundamental principle in all proper school 
organization and administration is that there should be a 
real unity in the organization and a responsibility to one 
head in the administration, and that the head of the school 
system should be no other than the superintendent of 
schools. Through him, as the head of the school system, 
the board should work. The educational department is not 
a minor or a subordinate or even a coordinate department, 
but is the one for which all the other departments exist. 
All forms of administrative machinery, and all officers of 
control and department heads, exist for the prime purpose 
of assisting the educational department to get teachers 
and children together under the best possible educational 
conditions. Some departments have, in addition, as one of 
their important purposes that of saving money for the 
educational department, and of deflecting as large a per- 
centage as possible into the work of actual instruction. 
Every overcharge detected by the clerk, every dollar saved 



30 School Organization and Administration 

in the purchase of siippHes, every economy effected in the 
erection or repair of school buildings, is added money for 
increasing the effectiveness of the instruction in the schools. 
The only excuse for having a clerical, purchasing, or build- 
ing department is that such may serve the educational 
department. 

In all well-organized school systems this relationship is 
clearly recognized, and these officials work under the direc- 
tion and report through the superintendent of schools. The 
board then deals largely with the superintendent, and holds 
him responsible for results and efficient service. Whenever 
the superintendent is not able to secure these, or to retain 
the confidence of the board of education as a body, the 
board should consider a change in its executive head. It 
should not retain the executive and take his work away 
from him. 

A PROPER ADMINISTRATIVE REORGANIZATION 

A proper reorganization of the work in Salt Lake City 
would be as shown in the second diagram given. This 
shows the position, relative importance, and lines of rela- 
tionship and authority which should exist in city school 
organization and administration in a city such as Salt Lake 
City. The superintendent of schools, rather than the board 
of education, should be the central coordinating authority, 
and the work of the board committees, if it is felt necessary 
to retain these, should be materially reduced in consequence. 
The school clerk and the superintendent of buildings, while 
still working with their proper committees, and still having 
somewhat independent powers of action in their respective 
fields, should nevertheless be under the coordinating author- 
ity and should report through the superintendent of 
schools. 

Directions given or work assigned to the school principals 
by the school clerk, or to the school janitors by the superin- 
tendent of buildings, should be subject to the approval of 



Organization of School System 



31 
















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X S 




k 






A 



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cUT3 

j3 a 

O Q, 

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^5 









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a v° 

"1 -=-2 a 

u d O 



u o fl 

o 2 c4 
•O <a^ 

O « « 



32 School Organization and Administration 

the superintendent of schools ; school supplies should be 
purchased only after first conferring with the superintend- 
ent of schools as to quality and kind and relative amounts; 
repairs and alterations to school buildings should only be 
made after approval as to nature and cost by the superin- 
tendent; and financial estimates should be made and sub- 
mitted through the responsible head of the school system. 
Such a reorganization in control, if coupled with the adop- 
tion of certain new rules tending to place proper responsi- 
bility with the executive officers employed by the board, 
would materially reduce the number and the length of the 
present committee meetings, and the necessity for the board 
spending such a large amount of time in serving as a co- 
ordinating body for the present separate departments and 
committee control. 

THE PUBLIC AND THE SUPERINTENDENT 

The superintendent of schools should be made the respon- 
sible head of the whole school system. As a matter of fact 
he is really held as such by both the board of education and 
the public. If expenses mount up too rapidly, if the school 
accounts are not properly kept, if the supplies furnished 
the schools are poor or inadequate or are too lavishly pro- 
vided, if the school buildings are not of the right type or 
cost too much, if they are not properly cared for and made 
available when needed, if the expense for building upkeep 
is too high, if harmony among the different officers and parts 
of the school system does not prevail, if the work of the 
schools is not up to standard, or if a dozen other possible 
things do or do not come to pass, the board and the public 
rightly tend to hold the superintendent of schools to be the 
responsible person. Even in many matters by law under 
board control, the public nevertheless looks to the super- 
intendent as the responsible party. 

This should mean that the superintendent of schools 
should be made the actual as well as the nominal head of 



Organization of School System 33 

the school system, and then should be held to strict account- 
ability for its successful operation. This is the method 
followed in all successful corporation control. This should 
also mean that his recommendations on matters which he 
is supposed to know more about than members of the board 
possibly can should not be turned down, except after the 
most careful consideration. In all matters relating to the 
appointment, promotion, transfer, and dismissal of teachers, 
principals, and supervisory officers, the initiative should rest 
absolutely with him, and only in cases of great importance 
should the board reject his recommendations. In no case 
should any board member be privileged to substitute a name 
of his own choice. 

No board member is competent to pass on such matters, 
and attempts to do so not only lead to fundamental educa- 
tional mistakes but, what is even more serious, tend to de- 
moralize a teaching force. If a teaching force is to possess 
esprit de corps and be devoted to its work, it must have con- 
fidence in its leaders and in their ability to protect them 
from injustice and mismanagement. Whenever a board of 
education is unwilling to continue to place this confidence 
in its superintendent the time has come for a change, either 
in the superintendent or in the board. Similarly, in all mat- 
ters relating to courses of instruction and studies the super- 
intendent should be in full control. On no other basis can 
he be responsible for the successful conduct of the schools. 

By the mere adoption of such rules of procedure, which 
are based on sound administrative practice, the work and 
importance of the committee on teachers and school work 
would be greatly reduced, and every member of the school 
board would be freed from what is, perhaps, the greatest 
annoyance a school board member is subjected to. To all 
applicants for positions, to all disgruntled teachers and 
principals, and to all interested friends, the board members 
could at once tell them to see the superintendent of schools, 
as full control of all such matters had been placed in his 
hands. In placing full responsibility there the board would 



34 School Organization and Administration 

only be doing what the board of directors of any well-man- 
aged sugar factory, cement plant, department store, or street 
railway continually does. The key to efficient management 
lies in the concentration of both authority and responsibility 
in trained executive officers, and the refusal of the directors 
of the corporation to interfere with its experts in technical 
matters relating to the administration of the property. 

A MORE FUNDAMENTAL REORGANIZATION DESIRABLE 

The above changes in organization and responsibility 
can be made by the board on its own initiative, and without 
change in existing law. All that is necessary is a change 
in its rules. The organization and administration of the 
school system could be still further improved by a new state 
law for the administration of school systems in cities of the 
first class. As some changes in existing laws are necessary, 
if the schools of Salt Lake City are not to be seriously 
cramped in the future, it is possible that all the changes 
might be obtained from the legislature at the same time. 

The desirable changes should include a reduction of the 
board of education from a board of ten, elected from wards, 
to one of five, elected from the city at large. However well 
it may have worked in Salt Lake City, the ward system is 
nevertheless undesirable and has been abandoned by many 
cities. The almost universal experience has been that board 
members have averaged higher from the city at large than 
when selected along ward lines, and petty local politics and 
local feelings influence the board much less in- its actions. 
The school system of a city is a unit, and board members 
should re])resent this larger unit and not some portion of it. 
So far, we are informed, the ward system has worked out 
well in Salt Lake City, but sooner or later, with the growth 
and change in character of the city, it is almost certain 
to bring undesirable members to the board. It should be 
abandoned now before bad results begin to be too evident. 

The board at present, also, is too large. A board of five, 



Organization of School System 35 

one that could meet in a much smaller room and around a 
single table, and with much more board and little or no 
committee action, would handle the educational business 
more quietly, more expeditiously, and more efficiently than 
a board of ten members can, and with fewer conflicts with 
its executive officers and fewer reversals of its actions. A 
large board almost always leads to unnecessary discussion, 
and often has to reverse itself. A board of five, one elected 
each year as now and for a five-year term, would represent 
a better form of educational organization. With the smaller 
board the present great waste of time in committee action 
could be obviated, as a board of five has no real need for 
standing committees. Business will be transacted better if 
all committees are temporary, and if the board acts on the 
recommendation of its executive officers first and finally as 
a body. 

SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS 

The survey commission accordingly recommends that the 
rules and regulations of the board of education be revised 
along the lines of the recommendations of this chapter ; that 
coordinating authority and responsibility for proper admin- 
istration be concentrated in one executive head ; that com- 
mittee action be materially decreased by placing larger re- 
sponsibility with the board's executive officers ; and that, at 
the first legislative opportunity, a revision of the state school 
law as it relates to cities of the first class be attempted, and 
along the lines of the suggested law given in the Appendix 
to this report. 



CHAPTER III 

ADMINISTRATION OF THE EDUCATIONAL 
DEPARTMENT 

HAVING now located the city we are to study, and hav- 
ing described the educational organization which the 
legislature of the state and the board of education for the city 
have created for the purpose of carrying out the state man- 
date as to schools, we shall turn next to a study of the or- 
ganization and administration of the educational depart- 
ment, and from this proceed to a study of the work of the 
schools themselves. The building department will be con- 
sidered more fully in Part III of this report, while the 
financial portion of the problem will be taken up in Part IV. 

WORK OF THE EDUCATIONAL DEPARTMENT 

In a city which is growing as rapidly as Salt Lake City, 
the problem of adequately caring for all the children be- 
comes a pressing one. In the twenty-four years since the 
unification of the schools under one city board, the school 
census and the enrollment in the schools have trebled, while 
the number of children in average membership has quad- 
rupled. During the same period the number of teachers em- 
ployed has increased six times. Within the past decade 
there has been a general increase of about forty per cent, 
in all these items. During the past five years the gain 
in enrollment has averaged 20 children a week for a fifty- 
two-week year, and during the past two years it has aver- 
aged 23 children a week. This means, on the last two years 
of growth, that three new twelve-classroom school buildings 
must be opened every year to accommodate the increase in 

36 



Administration of the Educational Department 37 

children enrolled in the schools. The pressure to provide 
teachers, classrooms, supervision, and teaching supplies puts 
a strain on the administrative organization and resources 
of a city that is growing at such a rate. 

The prime purpose of the educational department is to see 
that the teachers and children are brought together under as 
good conditions for instruction as is possible. This involves 
buildings, lighting, heating, ventilation, apparatus and sup- 
plies, playgrounds, and teachers, of course, but it also in- 







5 Q 5 OJ 



Fig. 6. A Quarter-Century of Growth in the Salt Lake City Schools 



volves an intelligently conceived educational purpose, and 
a system of school administration and supervision calcu- 
lated to secure the best educational results that each super- 
visory officer, teacher, and child is capable of giving. An 
important test of a system of school supervision is how far 
it brings out the best which each one connected with the 
system has to give. In this chapter we shall examine into 
the sufficiency and the character of the system of super- 



38 School Organization and Administration 

vision in force with reference to its ability to secure these 
larger ends. 

THE SUPERVISORY STAFF 

At the head of the educational department is a superin- 
tendent of schools, and to assist him in his work of supervis- 
ing the instruction the following staff has been employed : 

I Supervisor of grammar grades. 

I Supervisor of primary grades. 

I Supervisor of physical education. 

I Supervisor of manual training. 

I Director of physical education for elementary schools. 

1 Director of art and hand work in the primary grades. 

I Director of domestic science and arts. 

1 Supervising principal of high schools. 

2 Principals of high schools. 

28 Principals of elementary schools. 
38 Total. 

One of the first questions that naturally arises is as to 
the adequacy or inadequacy of this force. One method of 
answering this question is to compare Salt Lake City with 
other cities, to see where it stands in the matter of super- 
visory assistance. Compared with the same western cities 
used in Table III we obtain the table on the following page, 
from which it is seen that the supervisory staff at present 
employed is certainly moderate. 

Data by which a comparison with all the twenty-five cities 
used in Table I could be made are not available, as some 
of the cities failed to report the number of supervisory 
officers separately, and some use a group system for prin- 
cipalships which makes comparison impossible. The figures 
given for such eastern and middle-western cities used in 
Table I as are comparable make a showing similar to that 
for western cities with reference to the position of Salt 
Lake City in the matter of supervision. 

The conclusion from these figures would certainly be that 
Salt Lake City has too few rather than too many super- 



Administration of the Educational Department 39 



TABLE VIII 

Number of Pupils in Average Daily Attendance foe Each Supervisory 

Officer ^ 

I. Western Cities 





Pupils per 




Pupils per 


City 


Super- 


City 


Super- 




visory 




visory 




Officer 




Officer I 


Colorado Springs, Colo. 


208 


Spokane, Wash. . . 


369 


Sacramento, Cal. . . 


252 


San Francisco, Cal. . 


397 


Pasadena, Cal. . . . 


262 


Seattle, Wash. . . 


400 


San Diego, Cal. . . . 


2S3 


Denver, Colo. . . . 


423 


Butte, Mont 


296 


Berkeley, Cal. . . . 


433 


Ogdcn, Utah .... 


312 


Oakland, Cal. . . . 


445 


Tacoma, Wash. . . . 


331 


SALT LAKE CITY, 








UTAH 


460 


Los Angeles, Cal. . . 


Z2,3 


Portland, Ore. . . . 


513 


San Jose, Cal. . . . 


36s 






Average for the Group 


354 


Median for the Group 


365 



II. Eastern and Middle-Western Cities 



City 


Pupils per 
Super- 
visory 
Officer 


City 


Pupils per 
Super- 
visory 
Officer 


Trenton, N.J. . . . 

Troy, N.Y 

New Bedford, Mass. . 
Des Moines, Iowa . . 
Youngstown, Ohio 
Grand Rapids, Mich. 

Kansas City, Kan. . . 
Camden, N.J. . . . 


182 
227 
269 
291 
341 
359 

360 
371 


Albany, N.Y. . . . 
Duluth, Minn. . . . 
Omaha, Neb. . . . 
Yonkers, N.Y. . . . 
Dayton, Ohio . . . 
SALT LAKE CITY, 

UTAH 

Springfield, Mass. 
Lowell, Mass. . . . 


372 
381 
400 

445 
446 

460 
464 
479 


Average for the Group 


343 


Median for the Group 


371 



' This and the following table were compiled from data given in the then last 
printed report of the United States Commissioner of Education. 



40 School Organizatiofi and Administration 

visors. If we deduct the school principals, as being primarily 
building supervisors, we have left one supervising principal 
of high schools, who gives but part time to the work, two 
general supervisors of grade work, and live supervisors 
of special subjects. This is a number too small for a city 
with 22,635 children enrolled and with the character of the 
teaching force now being drawn into the schools. 



THE PRESENT SPECIAL SUPERVISION 

The provision of a supervisor of grammar-grade work 
and a supervisor of primary work, instead of two general 
assistant superintendents of schools, is a good point in the 
Salt Lake City system. By specializing the work of these 
two supervisors the tendency to become office workers and 
inspectors, so common in city school systems, has been 
almost entirely obviated. A somewhat careful investigation 
of the work of these two supervisors, made both in the 
classroom and by an examination of the work which they 
have sent out during the past year to teachers, gave the 
impression that both these persons were making an earnest 
effort to make of themselves helpful supervisors to the 
teachers in the schools. It was the feeling of the members 
of the survey staff that the city was getting good returns 
from the money spent on these two supervisors. 

The work of the supervisors of physical education and 
manual training is commented upon at length elsewhere in 
this report. It was the feeling of all the members of the 
survey staff who examined at all into the work under their 
charge that the city could do much better by making changes 
in supervisors in these two subjects, and that in the present 
supervision the city is not getting real value for the money 
expended. It would be better economy to pay larger sal- 
aries, if necessary, and secure persons able to direct the 
work of these two important departments along better edu- 
cational lines. 



Administration of the Educational Department 41 

The work seen in domestic science, and in art and hand 
work in the lower grades, gave evidence of good prepara- 
tion and leadership on the part of these directors. It was 
evident that the directors of these subjects were making 
themselves helpful to the schools. 

FURTHER SUPERVISORY NEEDS 

The number of special supervisors at present employed is, 
however, too small. The number is actually smaller now 
than it was a few years ago, though the number of teachers 
and pupils have both materially increased and the educa- 
tional problem in the city has become more difficult. With 
the present practice of the city in taking cheaper and less 
well-prepared young women for the teaching service, com- 
mented on at some length in the following chapter, and the 
further objectionable practice of pushing up the number of 
pupils per teacher, the need for good building-principals 
and for plenty of good and helpful special supervision can 
hardly be overemphasized. 

There is need in Salt Lake City for the employment of a 
good supervisor of drawing for the grade work. This work 
is too important to be neglected as it now is. A good super- 
visor of vocal and instrumental music and a director of 
bands and orchestras ought also to be provided. While the 
music instruction in the schools was in general good, there 
were many places where it was not good, while the few feeble 
attempts at the establishment of school orchestras seen, 
almost entirely due to the individual efforts of some prin- 
cipal, were only a suggestion of what might be done under 
proper direction. An orchestra ought to be developed in 
each elementary school, and a number of elementary school 
bands also should be organized. A community of the size 
and character of Salt Lake City ought to be developed into 
a musical city, and a community is musical only when its 
people as a mass love music and can produce it in some form. 
Music and drawing are very important forms of self-ex- 



42 School Organization and Administration 

pression, and self-expression is a very important but often 
neglected element in all education. 

7\ city the size of Salt Lake City, and of its peculiar type 
and location, also would find a good supervisor of school 
gardens, elementary science, and agricultural instruction 
a good investment. School gardening, agricultural instruc- 
tion, manual training, and domestic science are all subjects 
of large practical value, and subjects which this school sys- 
tem ought to emphasize. As will be pointed out more in 
detail in Chapter VIII of this report, an excess of time is 
now devoted to instruction in the so-called fundamental 
subjects, and at the expense of these so-called expression 
subjects. 

With the development of the junior high schools in dif- 
ferent parts of the city, part-time supervision of the work 
in languages, English, history, and science could with ad- 
vantage be extended to the seventh and eighth grades, by 
some one designated by the superintendent from these de- 
partments in the high school, and at little extra expense. 

THE WORTH OF SUPERVISION 

The whole question as to the value of special supervision 
depends upon its character and upon the type of special 
supervisors employed. If the special supervision is good, 
and if the supervisors extend helpful assistance to the 
teachers and make them stronger in their work, special 
supervision always gives large educational returns. Noth- 
ing pays such large dividends in any line of work as plenty 
of good brains at the top. On the other hand, if the super- 
vision is poor in quality and inspectorial in character, money 
spent on it is largely money thrown away. Nearly every- 
thing depends on the character of the supervisors employed. 
Cheap supervision is very likely to be poor supervision, but 
expensive supervision may not be good supervision. It pays 
a city to offer good salaries for such work, and to make its 
selections from a wide market. As a general proposition, 



Administration of the Educational Department 43 

though not always true, supervisors from the outside should 
be preferred to the promotion of individuals from within 
the force, because of the new ideas they can bring into the 
school system. 

In the choice of all special supervisors, who represent as 
it were a part of the superintendent's cabinet, the entire 
choice should be placed with him, and he should be made to 
feel that he is free to go anywhere to get the right persons 
for the work. In the preceding chapter it was stated as a 
correct principle of action that board members should turn 
the selection and dismissal of all teachers over to the super- 
intendent. Much more shpuld this be done in the matter 
of special supervisors. A mistake made by board members 
in selecting a teacher is local and isolated, and ca-n be rem- 
edied, but a mistake in selecting special supervisors is wide- 
spread in its influence and hard to remove. The choice 
and direction of special supervisors require an expertness 
of judgment which few laymen ever possess, and if board 
members begin to urge personal candidates for such posi- 
tions, in opposition to the recommendations of the super- 
intendent, the supervisorial system can soon be demoralized 
and its usefulness in large part destroyed. 

THE SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 

The members of the survey staff were much pleased with 
what they saw of the elementary school principals, and the 
work they were doing in the supervision of their schools. 
Usually the elementary school principalship is the weakest 
place in the entire school system, and one generally finds 
more dead wood in such positions than in any other place. 
In Salt Lake City this was not the case. On the contrary, 
with a few exceptions, the elementary school principals were 
a good body of supervisory officers, interested in their work 
and professionally awake. Some of them were among the 
most efficient school principals members of the survey staff 
had ever seen, and their helpfulness to their teachers and 



44 School Organization and Administration 

their influence on both teachers and children seemed strong 
and good. One characteristic noted was that, if a member 
of the survey staff arrived at a school building after school 
had begun, he usually had to ring the hall bell to find the 
principal. He was somewhere in the rooms, busy with his 
work, instead of sitting on his chair in his office. In many 
school systems one seldom finds a school principal, during 
school hours, off his office chair. 



REASONS FOR THIS DIFFERENCE IN SALT LAKE CITY 

After some investigation the survey staff came to the con- 
clusion that much of this efficiency was due to the method 
of supervising the schools and the work of the principals 
adopted by the superintendent and the special supervisors. 
The principal in Salt Lake City has been made the center 
and the unit for all work of building supervision. All spe- 
cial supervisors are instructed to work as much as possible 
through him, and to respect and uphold his authority in the 
school. Outlines and circular letters to teachers are to pass 
through his hands, and supervisors are directed to avoid 
encroaching on his rights and prerogatives as the responsible 
head of his building. Each principal has been made to feel 
that he has a job on his hands worthy of his best efforts, and 
that the responsibility for the success of his school rests 
with him. Many of the principals, in talking with mem- 
bers of the survey staff, said that they felt under constant 
pressure from the superintendent to be efficient principals 
and to make a success of their work, or else run the risk 
of being removed from their positions. 

Hence a prominent characteristic of the system of school 
administration employed is its utilization of the best each 
principal has in him in the administration of his school. 
This means an individuality among the different schools 
which is as delightful to see as it is unusual to find. Too 
many school superintendents feel that the way to run a 
school system is to issue orders and regulations, and by 



Administration of the Educational Department 45 

this means bring all up to that uniform standard which 
is handed down by the superintendent from above. The 
result is a uniformity in control and output which may be 
pleasing to the superintendent and board members who have 
mechanical minds, but it is the uniformity of death rather 
than of life. School principals under such a system of ad- 
ministration lose their initiative, fail to develop any individ- 
uality in the administration of their schools, and in time 
become keepers of records, inspectors of work, and dis- 
tributors of chalk and supplies. To see one school in such 
a city system is to see the type school ; few principals under 
such administrative conditions long retain life enough to 
hold out and remain different from the mass. 

In Salt Lake City just the reverse of this condition was 
the case. Nearly every school visited had something that 
was different, and most of the principals had some new trick 
in administrative control to show. Such a condition can 
arise only under the stimulus of controlled freedom. Such 
controlled freedom means life to principals, a new stimulus 
to teachers, and strength and vitality to the schools. 

THE PREMIUM ON INDIVIDUAL INITIATIVE 

Though every school system ought to be trying some 
educational experiments, few school systems do. In Salt 
Lake City, on the contrary, permission to try any worthy 
experiment is easy to obtain. Any principal who has an 
idea which, to him, seems likely to result in an improvement 
in the instruction in his school, feels at liberty to lay it be- 
fore the superintendent of schools and ask permission to try 
it. This permission is usually granted, though the condi- 
tions of control of the experiment are sometimes laid down. 
The result is that a number of good educational experiments 
were being tried at the time of our visit. On questioning 
school principals, we found that many of the commendable 
features of their schools had arisen from some experiment 
they had been permitted to try in the past. In the principals' 



46 School Organization and Administration 

meetings, lield once each month by the superintendent, the 
more important of these experiments are reported and their 
results discussed. We also found in existence a Principals' 
Advisory Committee of live, which meets from time to time 
to consider matters of educational importance, and which 
reports its findings and expresses its wishes to the superin- 
tendent of schools. 

Such a liberal plan in school administration is to be highly 
commended. The good results of it on the school system 
were evident to all the members of the survey staff. If 
asked to name the one thing in which the Salt Lake City 
system of school administration is superior to most other 
systems, we should say it is in this absence of a deadening 
uniformity imposed from above, and in the premium which 
is placed on initiative from below. It was one of the best 
features the survey staff found in the Salt Lake City school 
system. 

It was the unanimous feeling of the members of the sur- 
vey staff that the system of administrative control of super- 
visors and principals employed by the superintendent, and 
of principals and teachers by the other supervisory officers, 
was excellent both in theory and results. In brief, the sys- 
tem seemed based on the theory that the board placed the 
responsibility for the success of the school system on the 
superintendent of schools; he in turn placed the responsi- 
bility for the success of each part or school on the special 
supervisor or the building principal in control ; these in turn 
placed the responsibility for the successful conduct of each 
room upon the teacher in charge ; and she in turn placed the 
responsibility for the success of that room upon each pupil 
in it. The members of the survey staff saw many evidences, 
extending all the way from the children in the rooms to the 
special supervisors, of the wisdom and value of this very 
liberal method of supervisory control from above. 



CHAPTER IV 
THE TEACHING STAFF 



GROWTH OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM 

THE drawing below shows in graphic form the growth of 
the Salt Lake City school system in the matter of the 
number of pupils remaining in average membership through- 
out each school year, and the number of teachers who have 
been employed to teach these same pupils. The curves do not 
show the still larger number of pupils enrolled, but who did 



zo^ 


? S 5 3t 


* « S; ^ 8; 


8 S 8 8 S 


38o^SS;«5?!? 


Hsillalslllli^ 


\\ll\ 


1 M ? 1 i 










/ 


\5 










^y^ \ 








^^ 








Kv"*"" 


^^^^^/--^ 


^ 

^^^, 


% 


W 






,f 












/ / 




J^l.0'^" 


















n 


% 











700 



100 



Fig. 7. A Quarter-Century of Growth in Numbers of Children 
AND OF Teachers Employed 

47 



48 School Organization and Administration 

not remain in membership in the schools throughout the 
year. 

A glance at the drawing, and at the figures giving the 
number of pupils in average membership in the schools for 
each teacher employed for the different years, reveals the 
history of the efforts of the school board to supply teachers 
for the schools. This average number of pupils per teacher 
has been obtained by the usual method of dividing the total 
average membership in the schools by the total number of 
regular and special teachers, principals, and supervisors em- 
ployed. If only elementary-school classroom teachers were 
used the numbers would be much higher. 

During the first eight years shown on the chart but little 
effort was made to reduce the number of pupils per teacher. 
By 1897-98, many teachers must have been trying to teach 
as many as fifty children. During the next eight years, 
that is from 1897-98 to 1905-06, due to the combined in- 
fluence of a falling off in the rate of increase in pupils and 
a somewhat constant increase in the number of teachers 
employed for the schools, the number of pupils per teacher 
decreased to about what it is at present. From 1905-06 
to 1911-12, but especially during the last two years of this 
period, the school board seems to have made a determined 
effort to reduce the size of classes, finally succeeding in 
bringing the school average down to 27.7. This still meant 
many classes of forty to forty-five children enrolled, and 
with an average daily attendance of from thirty-five to 
forty. During 191 2-1 3, however, the number of teachers 
employed was actually reduced by twenty-two, and this in 
the face of an increase in school enrollment of 713. and an 
increase in average membership of 730. Since this time the 
number of pupils per teacher has been allowed to increase, 
until it reached 32.3 in 1914-15, and this notwithstanding 
an increase of 33 per cent, in the number of high-school 
teachers employed during the past two years, incident to the 
opening of the' new East Side High School. Furthermore, 
it is the announced intention to increase the size of classes 



The Teaching Staff 49 

still further, during 191 5-16, by employing but few addi- 
tional teachers. Elementary-school classes will soon be up 
to forty-five children at this rate. 

In 1914-15, for which we have segregated figures, the 
average membership of 32.3 per teacher, based on the total 
number of all kinds of teachers employed, meant an average 
enrollment of 40 and an average membership of 35 in the 
elementary schools, and an average membership of 22.3 in 
the high schools. These figures for the elementary schools 
are high, 28 to 30 pupils in average membership being 
nearer what the elementary schools should average. With 
the tendency to employ less experienced and cheaper teach- 
ers, as will be pointed out further on in this chapter, this 
tendency to increase classes cannot be continued without a 
serious impairment of the quality of the instruction in the 
schools. 

POSITION OF SALT LAKE CITY AS TO TEACHERS 

To show the position of Salt Lake City in the matter of 
teachers employed, compared with other western cities, the 
table on the following page has been compiled. 

To compare Salt Lake City with the other western cities 
on the same basis, the number of principals and supervisory 
officers employed has first been deducted in each case. The 
figures are based on the last published reports of the United 
States Commissioner of Education, except for Salt Lake 
City, which is calculated on the basis of the figures for 
1914-15. 

In other words, this table shows that the average size 
of classes in Salt Lake City is 3.1 pupils higher than the 
median point for sixteen other western cities. To bring the 
average size of class in Salt Lake City down merely to this 
median would require the employment of sixty-five addi- 
tional teachers, without making any allowance for the nor- 
mal increase next September. In view of these figures the 
announced intention to increase the size of classes next year, 



50 



School Organization and Administration 



by employing but few new teachers, while it may be neces- 
sary with the present lack of buildings and funds for school 
maintenance, is nevertheless an undesirable thing to do from 
any educational point of view. 

TABLE IX 

NuMBEK OF Pupils in Average Daily Attendance per Teacher 
Employed, in all Schools 



City 


Teacher 
Average 


City 


Teacher 
Average 


Pasadena, Cal 

Berkeley, Cal 

Sacramento, Cal. . . . 
Los Angeles, Cal. . . . 

Denver, Colo 

Butte, Mont 

San Diego, Cal 

Ogden, Utah 

Seattle, Wash 


IQ.2 

24.6 
24.9 
25.0 
25.8 

25-9 
26.7 
27.2 
27.2 


Portland, Ore. . . . 
Colorado Springs, Colo. 
Spokane, Wash. . . 
SALT LAKE CITY, 

UTAH 

Oakland, Cal 

San Jose, Cal 

San Francisco, Cal. . 
Tacoma, Wash. . . 


28.7 
29.0 
29-5 

30.3 

30-7 
31.0 
33-6 
33-8 


Average for the Group . 

Excess of Salt Lake City 

above Average . . . 


27.9 
2.4 


Median for the Group. 
Excess of Salt Lake City 
above Median . . . 


27.2 
31 



OTHER BAD FEATURES OF THE TEACHER SITUATION 

Coupled with this pushing up of the size of classes, cer- 
tain other very undesirable features are coming in to com- 
plicate further the educational problem in Salt Lake City. 

In the first place, the number of ungraded rooms in the 
city is being reduced, though the larger the classes become 
and the less experienced the teaching force, the more need 
there is for ungraded rooms and special classes. As will be 
pointed out more in detail in Chapter IX, the city at present 
needs at least fifteen additional teachers for tmgraded classes 
in the different elementary schools of the city, and ten addi- 
tional special teachers for retarded and defective children. 
These are minimum needs merely to care properly for pres- 



The Teaching Staff 



SI 



ent conditions. The high degree of retardation in the 
schools, as will also be pointed out in Chapter IX, and es- 
pecially in a number of schools having no ungraded room, 
would indicate the need for lighter rather than heavier loads 
for the grade teachers. 

ns T 




o o 



p O o o 



Fig. 8. Distribution of Salaries Paid Elementary-School Teachers, 

1914-1S 

Another undesirable feature of the situation is the tend- 
ency, at present so manifest, to take cheaper and less expe- 
rienced teachers for the schools. Figure 8, giving the 
distribution of salaries paid elementary-school teachers 
during 1914-15, shows this very clearly. While the mini- 
mum salary is nominally $600, 15.5 per cent, of the teachers 
in the schools have been put in, during the past two years, 
as probationary teachers at salaries on which no other than 
a " home girl " could possibly live. That this has resulted 
in a marked increase in the number of inexperienced local 
girls selected for teaching positions in the elementary 
schools is clearly shown by Figure 9, on the following page. 



52 



School Organization and Administration 




TEACHERS IN ELCMENTARY SCHOOLS 




HIGH SCHOOL TfACMCRS 



Fig. 9. Where the Teachers of Salt Lake City Have 
Received their Education 



The Teaching Staff 



Two-thirds of the elementary- 
school teachers in this city are 
seen to be " home girls." 

With the isolation tinder which 
Salt Lake City to a certain extent 
suffers, this is entirely too high a 
percentage of home talent to have 
employed. It represents an in- 
breeding process which is almost 
certain to weaken the work of the 
schools. Salt Lake City would 
have a very much better teaching 
force in its elementary schools 
if it drew more extensively 
on teachers who have received 
their training and experience in 
odier cities and states. The em- 
ployment of teachers from the 
outside has been the great strength 
of the school systems of such 
cities as Seattle, Portland, Oak- 
land, Pasadena, Los Angeles, and 
San Diego. For Salt Lake City to 
follow the example of these cities, 
though, would involve raising 
the minimum salaries for teachers 
up to about what the median now 
is. The salaries paid high-school 
teachers are better, as may be 
seen from. Figure lo, which doubt- 
less accounts for the greater per- 
centage of outside teachers shown 
in the lower part of Figure 9. 

As the salary schedule in Salt 
Lake City is graded largely on the 
basis of the number of years of 
teaching service, the great mass- 
ing of salaries toward the lower 



81750 
1700 
I6J0 
1600 
1550 
1500 
1450 
1400 
1350 
1300 
1280 
1250 
IZ30 



] 



nil 



1200 

mo 

1170 
1150 
1100 
1050 
1000 
950 
900 
%75 
Z50 
ZOO 
100 
G50 
GOO 
550 
500 



Heads of 



SCUIOLpTI) 



MediOrn 



Prot>o.t(i 



iSaJooru 



(ona.ru 



Fig. 10. High-School Salaries 



54 



School Organization and Administration 



end of the scale indicates the employment of young and inex- 
perienced teachers. Figure 8 shows that 41.6 per cent, of the 
elementary-school teachers this past year have been paid $750 
or less. Salt Lake City is employing for its schools too many 
girls of little teaching experience. This is further brought 
out by Figure 1 1, which shows that 50 per cent, of the teach- 
ers in the city have been in the schools five years or less. 



HUMB£H OF Tt/KHOiyj lO If ZO 2S 30 3S 40 4S M SS i 


,0 ** 70 rr » If 99 


\n9 


1 


' 


1 


' 


1 


' 


1 


' 


I 


)f90 


— 


















1891 


■ 


















\S3Z 


■1 


















\S93 




















M9A 


■■ 


















\i95 wm 


















nsQ> 


HI 


















MSI 


■i 


















159? 


^B 


















1^99 


■■ 


















1900 


■^■1 
















1901 




■m 


1902 




■■1 


1903 




[^■1 










1 
■ 






1904 
\S05 
1906 




mSm 


1 




mam 


■i 


1907 
\90S 




■■■ 


Eh 


1909 
1911 ^ 




= 


g 




1912^ 
1913 
1914 [ 




s 


s 






■ 


■i- 


^ 


iM 























Fig. II. 



Tenure of Teachers in Salt Lake City, as Shown by Year of 
First Appointment to the Teaching Force 



THE SALARY SCHEDULES 



That teachers' salaries in Salt Lake City are low there can 
be no question. Salt Lake City is not a cheap city in which 
to live, and a public school teacher should be paid a salary 



The Teaching Staff 



55 



sufficient to enable her to live as a person of education and 
refinement should. This demands a salary large enough to 
enable the teacher to secure a good quiet room in a house 
where she has regular use of a bath, good food, reasonably- 
good clothing, some money for books and better-class 
amusements, something left for summer schools and a sum- 
mer vacation, and a little margin for the unexpected. Con- 
sidering the training required and the cost of living, $800 
a year is low enough for a minimum in a western city, and 
$1,200 a year is low enough for a maximum for teachers 
in elementary schools. For high schools, a beginning salary 
of $900 and a maximum of $1,500, with $1,800 to $2,000 
for heads of departments, are salaries which are not too 
high when it is remembered that graduation from a uni- 
versity is required to enter the work. 

TABLE X 

Comparative Salary Schedules in Western Cities 





Teachers 


Principals 


City 


Minimum 

Salary 


Maximum 
Salary 


Minimum 
Salary 


Maximum 
Salary 


I. Elementary Schools 

1. SALT LAKE CITY, 

UTAH 

2. Tacoma, Wash 

3. Colorado Springs, Colo. 

4. Spokane, Wash 

5. Denver, Colo 

6. Portland, Ore 

7. Butte, Mont 

8. San Diego, Cal 

Q. Los Angeles, Cal. . . . 

10. Oakland, Cal 

11. Pasadena, Cal 

12. San Francisco, Cal. . . 

13. San Jos6, Cal 

14. Seattle, Wash 

15. Sacramento, Cal. . . . 

16. Berkeley, Cal 


$480 
600 
600 
600 
720 
72s 
750 
768 
768 
780 
800 
840 
840 
840 
900 
960 


$1020 

960 

960 

1000 

1200 

IIOO 

1200 
1200 
1200 
1200 

IIOO 

1024 
1050 
mo 
1200 

liOO 


$1350 
1 140 

1150 
1050 
1400 
1050 
1200 
1200 
1300 
1500 
1200 

2340 
1800 
1440 
1560 
1500 


$2350 
1800 
1800 
I Sod 
2000 
2150 
1700 
2004 
2400 
2400 
2100 
2460 
1920 
2160 
1560 
2280 



56 



School Organization and Administration 

TABLE X — Continued 
Comparative Salary Schedules in Western Cities 





Teachers 


Heads of 
Depart- 
ments 
Maximum 




City 


Minimum 
Salary 


Maximum 
Salary 


Principals 


II. High Schools 

1. SALT LAKE CITY, 

UTAH 

2. Tacoma, Wash 

3. Colorado Springs, Colo. . 

4. Denver, Colo 

5. Seattle, Wash 

6. Spokane, Wash 

7. Pasadena, Cal 

8. Portland, Ore 

9. Berkeley, Cal 

10. San Diego, Cal 

11. Los Angeles, Cal. . . . 

12. Sacramento, Cul. . . . 

13. San Jose, Cal 

14. Butte, Mont 

15. Oakland, Cal 

16. San Francisco, Cal. . . . 


$800 
810 

QOO 
1000 
1020 

HOC 

IIOO 

1150 
1200 
1200 
1200 
1200 
1200 
1250 
1260 
1500 


$1400 

1350 
1600 
1600 
1560 
1400 
1500 

1350 
1500 
1600 
1680 
1680 
1500 
1600 
1500 
1730 


$1600 

1600 
1600 
2200 
1680 
1800 
1700 
1600 
1800 
1800 
2160 
1680 
2200 
1800 
2100 
2040 


$3800 
2500 
1800 

3600 
3300 
3300 
3000 
3000 
3000 
3600 
2300 
3600 
3000 
3300 
3600 



That such salaries are comparable to those paid in other 
western cities where living costs are somewhat similar, and 
where good school systems are maintained, may be seen 
from the preceding table, comparing teachers' salaries in 
Salt Lake City with salaries paid in the sixteen other west- 
ern cities used in other tables in this report. 

In both elementary- and secondary-school salaries, as 
shown by Table X, Salt Lake City pays the lowest mini- 
mum and also nearly the lowest maximum of any west- 
ern city. Only in the salaries paid principals should Salt 
Lake City be commended. 

COMPARATIVE SALARIES PAID 

That the salaries paid teachers in Salt Lake City are also 
lower than are paid other types of city employees, and em- 



The Teaching Staff 57 

ployees in other local lines of business, may be seen from 
the following table giving wage scales common in Salt Lake 
City. For purposes of proper comparison all have been re- 
duced to a twelve-month basis : 

TABLE XI 

Wage Scale for Different Types of Employees in Salt Lake City 
Public School Employees 

In elementary schools $40.00 to $85.00 per [month 

In high schools 41.66 to 116.66 per month 

Department heads in high schools 100.00 to i2>3-ii P^r month 

School janitors 

City Employees 

Policemen $80.00 to $112.50 per month 

Firemen 80.00 to 100.00 per month 

Street sweepers 50.00 per month 

Clerks in city offices 75.oo to 100.00 per month 

Stenographers in same 60.00 to 75.00 per month 

Bank Employees 

Head bookkeepers Sgo.oo to $125.00 per month 

Assistant bookkeepers 75-oo to 100.00 per month 

Collectors 30.00 to 75.00 per month 

Tellers 100.00 to 150.00 per month 

Railroad Employees 

Bookkeepers $90.00 to $110.00 per month 

TraveUng men 100.00 to 150.00 per month 

Stenographers and secretaries 50.00 to 100.00 per month 

Telegraph operators 85.00 to 100.00 per month 

Store Employees 

Bookkeepers $75.00 to $110.00 per month 

Clerks, male 60.00 to 100.00 per month 

Clerks, female 40.00 to 60.00 per month 

CONCLUSIONS AS TO TEACHERS 

It will be seen from the tables and charts given in this 
chapter that the number of teachers now employed is too 
small, and that the tendency in employment is in the wrong 
direction ; that the schools are securing too many inex- 
perienced teachers, from the immediate neighborhoods, and 



58 School Organization and Administration 

with purely local outlook and training; that the tendency 
in salaries is downward, below what is a living wage for 
any person of education and refinement, and below a re- 
muneration which will make teaching attractive to the better 
class of young people; and that the salaries paid are lower 
than in other western cities, or in other types of city serv- 
ice. What ought to appeal to the best minds as the highest 
and most attractive service is rendered just the opposite, 
from a monetary point of view. 

To supply the present needs of the schools for regular 
class teachers and for special teachers, as will be pointed out 
further on in this report, would require the addition of ap- 
proximately 100 more teachers to the elementary school 
service. To pay a salary schedule such as well-trained 
teachers demand would require, including the new teachers 
to be employed to meet present needs, an addition of prob- 
ably 40 per cent, to the present allowance for teachers' sal- 
aries. This is doubtless impossible under the present tax 
limits, but it is no less a necessity if the schools are to be 
put in condition to render the full service that they should. 
A continuation of present tendencies cannot fail to interfere 
seriously with the efficiency of the instruction in the schools. 

In presenting these criticisms of the present policy as to 
teachers, necessitated by the present financial situation, the 
survey staff do not wish to leave the impression that they 
feel that the teaching force is not rendering good service. 
On the contrary, all felt that the city was getting more for 
its money than it had a right to expect. In every school we 
found a few excellent teachers, a number of good average 
teachers, and one or two teachers who seemed to lack ex- 
perience and grasp. The last is not at all surprising, con- 
sidering the type of young people being taken for the work. 
That the teachers were rendering as good service as they 
were, considering the inexperience and lack of contact with 
life elsewhere of many of the newer ones, was in large 
measure due to the good supervision given their work by 
the principals and the special supervisors. 



CHAPTER V 
SCHOOL CENSUS AND SCHOOL ATTENDANCE 



THE INCREASE IN BOTH 



THE drawing which appears on this page shows the 
increases in school census, school enrollment, and 
average membership in the schools of Salt Lake City for the 
past quarter of a century. In a general way the three follow 











^ 








^ 












C^^^ 


^^ 






^ J— — "^ 
5CH00L& 




<^ 


— — --\vtRftGE i 


\LW{BtR3«\>^ 

















3POOO 
Childi-en 



S.OOO 



« § § 



§ e 



ov 5! flj G> 



5 gj Q 



Fig. 12. Increase in School Census, Enrollment, and Average 
Membershlp 

somewhat parallel lines, though the increase in enrollment 
and average membership during the past fifteen years has 
not quite kept up with the increase in the school census. 
The increase in school census as reported by the enumera- 

59 



6o School Organization atid Administration 

tors has also been less reg"iilar than has the increase in en- 
rollment and average membership, as shown by the more 
jagged line. A natural question raised by such a curve is 
as to whether the different enumerations have been carefully 
made. It is hard to explain the decreases in 1906, and 
again in 191 2, on any other basis than a failure to enumer- 
ate all the existing children. As all apportionments of 
state school money are based on the school census returns 
(children over 6 and under 18 years of age reported as 
living within the city) and as the amount apportioned is a 
considerable sum ($13.00 per child in 1913-14), it doubtless 
would pay the board of education to revise the methods in 
use for taking the annual school census. 

A SCHOOL CENSUS BUREAU 

A school census bureau should be created, in connection 
with the department of compulsory school attendance, and 
it should compile accurate records of the children living in 
every block or school district in the city. Such records 
might be collected by the school principals, by the depart- 
ment of compulsory attendance, or by some other means. 
Each pupil-record should show the following information: 

1. Name of child (surname first). 

2. Sex of child. 

3. Month, day, and year of birth, from which the num- 
ber of years old, at last birthday, is also to be set down. The 
authority upon which the age is taken (word of parents; 
birth certificate ; baptismal certificate ; passport ; etc. ) shall 
also be set down. 

4. Country of birth. 

5. Name of parent (father or mother), guardian, or 
other person standing in parental relation. 

6. Abode, including school-attendance district, post-office 
address, and street and number. 

7. Physical condition (good; deaf; dumb; blind; crip- 
pled). 



School Census and School Attendance 6i 

8. Mental condition (good; otherwise). 

9. School attending (public; private; parochial). 

10. Position in school (grade). 

11. Reason, if not attending school. 

12. If employed, where and how. 

13. Vaccination certificate record. 

A duplicate card system should be employed, one card to 
be retained in the office of the department of compulsory 
school attendance, and one at the school the child attends. 
This form of school census should be always in the making, 
so as to keep it accurate and reliable. School teachers and 
principals should report all changes and additions, and the 
school principals could be employed on Saturdays or in 
vacation to check up and keep accurate the information for 
their school districts. 

All such data should be sorted and tabulated by schools, 
or attendance districts, and the attendance of each child at 
public, private, or parochial school, or non-attendance at any 
school, should be indicated on the records. The annual 
state school census, required by the laws of the state, could 
be taken each July from the card records on file in the office 
of the attendance department. By using some care to main- 
tain such records in accurate form, the whereabouts of every 
child of school age could at all times be known. Such a 
form of continuing school census has been established by 
a few of our cities, and is the only form that possesses much 
real value as a record, or for the enforcement of the com- 
pulsory-attendance, child-labor, or working-permit laws. 

Such a plan calls for the appointment of a man or a 
woman who will give full time to keeping the records ac- 
curate, and some extra clerical assistance at certain times 
of the year. The school principals could be used for much 
of the work, as they constitute the most intelligent body of 
assistants obtainable. Such a census bureau would of course 
cost something to maintain, — perhaps $5,000 a year, — 
but it probably would more than save its cost in increased 



62 School Organization and Administration 

earning-s from the state grants, in addition to affording a 
much better basis for the enforcement of the state laws re- 
lating to the education and protection of children. 



VALUE OF SUCH RECORDS IN LOCATING SCHOOL BUILDINGS 

A tabulation of such records, from year to year by blocks 
and by districts, would also be of much value to the officers 
of the school department in determining the growth, the 
rate of growth, and the changes in character of the school 
population in the different districts of the city. From such 
data the needs of the school department in buildings, rooms, 
equipment, and teachers could not only be somewhat accu- 
rately determined, but determined sufficiently long enough 
in advance to enable the school department to provide proper 
school facilities. It is from some such form of record that 
a telephone company knows where to locate a branch ex- 
change, and when to replace its lines with others capable of 
caring for increased business. With such records available, 
such errors of personal judgment as the board of education 
made last year in deciding to locate a new building on the 
already overcrowded Hamilton School site, and later, after 
the type of building had been decided upon and plans had 
been drawn, reversing itself and locating the building as orig- 
inally recommended by the superintendent of schools, could 
easily be avoided. From reading the minutes of board meet- 
ings for July, August, and September of last year, one would 
be led to infer that this needless mistake cost the board a 
large amount of time, and caused much bitter feeling. 
Under a good record system, such a case could easily have 
been avoided. 

ENFORCEMENT OF COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE 

The school law of the State of Utah requires the attend- 
ance at some school of practically every child in Salt Lake 
City, between the ages of 8 and i6, for at least 30 weeks 



School Census and School Attendance 



63 



each year. The reports of the school truant officer, as printed 
in the annual reports of the board of education, would indi- 
cate that the attendance of children is looked after as well 



- ZOOO POpift 



-1500 




S 6 T S 9 10 II li 13 ;♦ J6 16 n It 19 zo rw. 

Fig. 13. Distribution of Public-School Pupils in Salt Lake City, by 

Ages 

as one man can do such work in a city of 110,000 inhabit- 
ants, and covering fifty square miles of territory. 

Figure 13, showing the ages of all children belonging to 
the schools in May, 191 5, shows that attendance holds up 



64 School Orgaiiizalion and Administration 

fairly well to the end of the 15th year. Figure 14, how- 
ever, shows that attendance drops very rapidly in Salt 
Lake City after the completion of the 6th school grade, and 
this fact, together with the large number of over-age chil- 
dren in the grades, as* shown by Figure 28, makes it almost 
certain that a large number of the older children, held in 
school by the enforcement of the compulsory education laws, 
are pupils who are " mired down " in the grades and are 
hopelessly repeating work which is not at all suited to their 
needs. This must be particularly the case with many of the 
boys. It is almost certain that a vocational school for such 
children would be of great benefit not only to them, but to 
the grades from which they would be withdrawn as well. 
No school system consisting of grade instruction alone can 
ever meet the educational needs of those markedly over-age 
boys and girls who find themselves unable to make satisfac- 
tory progress in the work of the ordinary school course of 
study. The needs of such children are considered more at 
length in Chapter IX. 

WHERE THE SCHOOLS ARE INCREASING 

Figure 14 show^s the increase in pupils enrolled in the 
schools at the close of each ten-year period for the past three 
decades, and their distribution throughout the school system 
by grades. This is an interesting chart. In 1894, the great 
dropping out of children took place after the completion 
of the 4th school grade, the number remaining to the close 
of the 8th or going on through the high school being quite 
small. During the ten-year period up to 19 14, the schools 
actually increased more in the four upper grades than in 
the four lower, a rather anomalous situation. During the 
last ten-year period, the great gain has been in the first six 
grades. 

The marked falling off in attendance is now seen to take 
place at the close of both the 4th and the 6th school grades, 
with another heavy mortality at the end of the first year of 



School Census and School Attendance 



65 



the high school. The loss at the end of the 9th grade is 
almost as large as the loss at the end of the 8th. These 
curves naturally raise a question as to whether the courses 
of study and the types of education provided for the chil- 



4000 
Pupils 



5500 



3000 



ZSOO 



zooo 



I500 



1000 



SOO 




400O 
Pupils 



- 3500 



3000 



ZSOO 



ZOOO 



1500 



\000 



500 



GRADE I n HI 12 :2" !□; 301 ms. n x tt 3IE 

Fig. 14. Changes in the Enrollment by Grades in Twenty Years 

dren below 16 years of age is the best the community can 
provide. This question will be considered more in detail in 
the succeeding chapters of this report. 



PUPILS COMPLETING THE HIGH-SCHOOL COURSE 

The small number of pupils finishing a high-school course, 
or even continuing into the second year of the high schools, 



66 



School Organization and Administration 



is a noticeable feature of tlie distribution shown in Figure 
14. In a community such as SaU Lake City, a community 
of good racial stocks, low illiteracy, good educational tra- 



CITIES 

BERKELEY.CAL. 
2.NEWT0N.MAS3. 
3.3ANJ03E.CAL. 
4.PASADENA,CAL. 
5.WALTHAfA.fAA3S. 
G.SAN D1E60.CAL. 
7 SEATTLE. mSH. 
? SPOKANE.. WASH. 
9.CAfV\BRI06E.MAS3 
)ODE6IV\01NESJA. 

SACRAN\ENTO.CAL. 
12.L0S ANGELES, CAL. 
IS.OMAHA.NEBR. 
14 DENVER, COLO. 
IJ5.TAC0MA.VYASH. 
I6.SPR1NGFIELD,MAS3. 
17 PORTLAND, ORE. 
I^OAKLANO.CAL 
19.DULUTH,N\1NN. 
20 BUTTE. MONT. 
2I.06DEN.UTAH. 
Z2.Y0NKERS.N.Y. ^^^^ 
23.SALT LAKECITY Vy.i^y^//A 
24.FALLRIVER.N\ASS 
25.SAN FRANCISCO 




Fig. 15. The Percentagt]; Which the Arri.ND.^NtE at the High Schools 
Represents of the Attendance at All Schools 

ditions, a state university at its doors, and much wealth, 
this is a rather surprising condition to find. One would ex- 
pect, in such a city, to find a large rather than a small per- 



School Census and School Attendance 67 

centage of pupils in attendance at the high schools. But, 
notwithstanding the rather marked increase in high-school 
enrollment during the last decade, the percentage in the 
high-school grades is still quite low. This condition natu- 
rally raises questions as to the adaptability to community 
needs of the instruction now offered in the Salt Lake City 
high schools. This question we shall consider at length in 
the second part of this report. 

To compare Salt Lake City in this respect with other 
cities, Figure 15 has been prepared. This shows, in a series 
of percentages, the relation which the number of pupils in 
attendance at the high schools in the different cities bears 
to the total number of pupils attending all schools in the 
city. Salt Lake City is here compared with twenty-four 
other American cities, including the sixteen western cities 
previously used. The data used for all cities were taken 
from the published reports of the United States Commis- 
sioner of Education, and covered the school year 19 12-13, 
which at the time was the last year for which reports were 
available. Salt Lake City was calculated for the year 1914- 
15, and from figures furnished by the superintendent as to 
that year's attendance. 

This chart tends to confirm the impression, raised by a 
study of the curves of Figure 14, that the courses of study 
offered in the Salt Lake City high schools are not as well 
adapted to the needs of the children of the city as they 
should be. The last two years of the elementary-school 
course also probably lack in power to interest the pupils in 
carrying their studies further. These questions will be con- 
sidered further in the second part of this report, where cer- 
tain reorganizations, calculated to improve the upper-grade 
work and make the entrance to high school more attractive, 
are presented. 



PART II 

The Work of the Schools 



CHAPTER VI 
THE PRINTED COURSES OF STUDY » 

ORDER OF PROCEDURE 

TURNING now to the work of the schools themselves, we 
shall attempt to evaluate, with some care, the work 
which they attempt and carry out. First we shall examine 
the printed courses of study and outlines for work that are 
issued for the guidance of teachers in the schools, to see in 
how far these meet the best standards as to what should 
constitute school instruction. This will be done in the pres- 
ent chapter, taking first the kindergarten, and then the dif- 
ferent subjects taught in the elementary school, and in the 
order in which they are presented in the printed courses of 
study. In the chapter which follows we shall attempt to 
evaluate the instruction and supervision as seen by the dif- 
ferent members of the survey staff, and shall make recom- 
mendations for certain desirable extensions of the school 
work. 

OPINIONS AND TESTS 

Both of these cliapters will, of necessity, be based largely 
on the personal opinion of the members of the survey staff, 
based in turn, we hope, on a knowledge of what constitutes 
good theory and current practice in the best of our Ameri- 
can schools. Following these two chapters, and in a way 
supporting their conclusions, will come two other chapters, 
which are in no way based on personal opinion, but instead 
on careful measurements as to the results of the instruction 

* Chapters VI and VII were written by Dr. James H. Van Sickle, Superin- 
tendent of City Schools, Springfield, Massachusetts. — Publishers. 

71 



72 School Organization and Administration 

and administration of the schools, using standard tests and 
carefully collected statistical data. 

This second part of the report must, by its very nature, 
be somewhat scientific and technical, as any other than a 
scientific and technical treatment of the problem would be 
of but little value, but to those charged with the adminis- 
tration and instruction of the schools the results here of- 
fered should prove of very great use. We also venture to 
hope that this second part has been put in such form, and 
the results so illustrated by diagrams, that the layman as 
well may be able to understand it and from it derive an 
accurate and intelligent idea as to the actual work which 
the schools of his city are doing. 

I. The Kindergartens 

THE KINDERGARTEN THEORY 

As outlined by the supervisor of primary schools and 
kindergartens this seems to be of the liberal type, but the 
equipment for carrying out this theory is inadequate, in that 
it consists of the old-time small gift-blocks and occupation 
materials. A theory in line with the best modern thought 
cannot be consistently worked out by means of an equipment 
designed for an extremely conservative and now almost 
abandoned practice. 

A valuable feature of the printed directions to kinder- 
garten teachers consists of suggestive exercises for the 
training of the senses of touch, sight, and hearing, similar 
to those cited l)y Halleck in his Education of the Central 
Nervous System. To quote from the outline in this 
connection : 

"The development of the senses always precedes intellectual activity, but 
we often demand the activity before we have given any training to the senses, 
or at least any regulated, purjwseful training. 

"Because the period of life between the age of three and the age of eight 
is one of rapid sense development, and because during this period the child 



The Courses of Study 73 

responds readily to the sense stimuli of his environment and but little to reason, 
the kindergarten should make sense training one of its chief lines of work. 

"Sense-training exercises are exceedingly valuable not only because they 
result in trained servants, but because they demand more or less concentration 
and therefore beget the habit and increase the power." 

Considering some of the other aims of the kindergarten 
work, the oiitHne continues as follows : 

"We must remember that a kindergarten is not an entity, it is a link in a 
chain, and as such we should see to it that it will fit into the next link. Teachers 
of the first grade have a right to expect children who have had a kindergarten 
training to come to them with greater sensory power, with some ability to re- 
ceive and follow directions, some manual power, some idea of self-control in the 
interest of the social group, a desire to achieve an independent solution of their 
little problems, and possessed of an alertness of sense perception not looked for 
in children who have not had such training." 



MORE KINDERGARTENS NEEDED 

The more prosperous portions of the city are well supplied 
with kindergartens. It would appear that in locating kinder- 
gartens there has been no comprehensive study of the needs 
of the various sections. Some of those in greatest need of 
them have none at all. Where there is great need there is 
naturally little realization of the need, and therefore no 
demand has made itself felt. This does not relieve the 
school department of the duty to look out for portions of 
the city in which the people do not know how to look out 
for their own interests. A kindergarten is greatly needed 
in each of the following schools: Bonneville, Irving, 
Onequa, Poplar Grove, Washington, and Webster. 

II. The Courses of Study for the Elementary 
Schools 

It may be said at the outset that with two principal ex- 
ceptions to be discussed later, manual training and physical 
training, the courses of study as outlined for the Salt Lake 
City schools are worthy of commendation. Unlike many 



74 School Organization and Administration 

similar publications, the volume does not appear to be a mere 
compilation. A definite theory of education underlies the 
development of each subject, and unusual attention has been 
paid to the relation which one subject bears to another. By 
means of the close correlation thus worked out great econ- 
omy of time is possible, both in teaching and in learning. 

HOW THE COURSES OF STUDY WERE MADE 

It is noteworthy that in preparing the present courses of 
study the superintendent and the supervisors were aided by 
the advice of a committee of five teachers from each grade, 
and a similar committee of principals. The writing of the 
courses could without doubt have been more quickly done 
in the superintendent's office, without time-consuming con- 
sultations with members of the teaching force. Thus pre- 
pared, they might have been quite as good, or even better, 
and yet have failed to serve as useful a purpose. They would 
have seemed to be imposed by authority, rather than adopted 
as a result of cooperative effort, whereas courses formulated 
in part by the teaching force, as in this instance, will be 
understood by all, and all, having had a certain responsibil- 
ity in their preparation and adoption, will be in sympathy 
with their aims and standards. 

The making of courses of study is best managed when 
the preparation is utilized as an opportunity, as has been 
done in this case, to increase the efficiency of the teaching 
force by securing the thoughtful participation of teachers 
in the work and responsibility involved. For these reasons 
the plan under which the Salt Lake City courses of study 
were formulated is to be commended. The committees to 
which reference has been made were appointed by the super- 
intendent. Similar committees elected by the teachers them- 
selves are now deliberating, not only on further desirable 
revisions of the courses, but also, at the invitation of the 
superintendent, upon any other feature of school procedure 
about which they care to make recommendations. 



27/e Courses of Study 75 

Wherever such cooperative relations exist between the 
supervising officers and the teaching force in a school sys- 
tem, one may reasonably expect the favorable results that 
always come from team work. In their visits to the schools 
the members of the survey staff have been at some pains to 
find out whether there is in fact in the Salt Lake City schools 
the mutual confidence and cooperation between teachers and 
supervisory officers which their plan would lead one to ex- 
pect. It is our opinion that such a relation has been devel- 
oped to a good degree, and that its effects are evident in the 
daily procedure in most of the schoolrooms visited. 



WHAT THE COURSES PRESCRIBE 

The courses of study prescribe minimum attainments 
which children must possess as a condition of promotion. 
Beyond this minimum great freedom is allowed. In devel- 
oping any course of study for any grade beyond the mini- 
mum which is deemed attainable by the slowest pupil, the 
superintendent places large responsibility upon the principal, 
so that he may adapt the work to any need peculiar to the 
local community. The principal in turn gives large liberty 
to the teacher in meeting individual needs of pupils, and in 
following out lines of interest. Under such conditions the 
teacher cannot degenerate into an automaton. She requires 
the children to think for themselves, to use their heads. 
This emphasis upon thought rather than mere memory was 
noticeable in nearly all schoolrooms that were visited. There 
was evidently much to be desired on the score of broader 
preliminary education on the part of many teachers, yet this 
lack was evidently being met, to a considerable extent, by 
the student attitude and consequent growth in power char- 
acteristic of a body of teachers who are being stimulated to 
regard their work as the solution of a series of vital prob- 
lems, rather than as a routine task. 



j6 School Organization and Administration 

DIVERSITY IN TIME ALLOTMENTS 

As might be expected in a system of schools in which 
considerable freedom is accorded teachers, there is much 
diversity in the time allotted to the various subjects in differ- 
ent schoolrooms of the same grade. This is clearly shown 
in Table XII. One cannot say so many minutes per day 
are devoted to spelling in the sixth grade of the Salt Lake 
City schools, so many to arithmetic, and so many to reading. 
The needs of the particular class determine the time. No 
teacher can excuse poor work by saying, " I have used faith- 
fully each day during the semester the time prescribed for 
the subject. It is therefore not my fault that the children 
have not met the minimum requirement of the course of 
study." The time was the teacher's to apportion. It was 
her responsibility to gauge the relative strength of the 
class in the various subjects, and work out a time schedule 
to fit the particular problem presented by her own pupils; 
not only to work it out, but to change it from time to time 
to meet changing needs as they develop. 

Early in each new term the teacher submits to the princi- 
pal a tentative daily program for his approval. This pro- 
gram, either as first presented or as modified, after con- 
sultation, is placed on the blackboard of the schoolroom, 
to be followed till some modification seems desirable, when, 
with the minimum of red tape, the desired change is ap- 
proved and made. 

Table XII was made up from blanks filled out by the 
teachers themselves, on the basis of time schedules actually 
posted in the schoolrooms at the time of the survey. The 
variation in the time devoted to given subjects by different 
teachers of the same grade, as shown under the headings 
" Maximum " and " Minimum " in the table, are so great 
as to suggest the probability that some subjects are being 
neglected by some teachers, while other subjects are over- 
emphasized. While believing in the principle of freedom 
on the part of the teacher in regulating her own program, 



The Courses of Study 



77 



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78 School Organization and Administratio^t 

and in corresponding responsibility for results, the survey 
would suggest the desirability of a more careful examination 
and criticism by some principals of the time schedules for 
their classes before approval. 

From a study of Table XII this responsibility on the part 
of the principal would appear to have been performed in 
many instances in a somewhat perfunctory manner. In 
order that so much freedom may not be harmful, instead 
of helpful, all who are charged with responsibility in such 
matters must live up to that responsibility. Where such 
extreme variations as appear in this table become common, 
it is not a matter for surprise that many superintendents 
feel driven to the unfortunate necessity of going to the 
opposite extreme and prescribing time limits as the lesser 
of two evils. The recommendation of the survey is that 
the freedom in this regard that now obtains in Salt Lake 
City be not curtailed, but that principals and teachers, by 
study and consultation, arrive at a consensus in the matter 
which will result in a more uniform apportionment of time 
than now obtains. However, it would not be out of har- 
mony with the general plan of the course of study to make 
a minimum prescription as to the time to be devoted to each 
subject, grade by grade, if sufficient time were left unclassi- 
fied to give the teacher reasonable scope for shifting 
emphasis from one subject to another, as occasion might 
seem to her to require. The policy of teacher participation, 
under which the Salt Lake City courses of study have been 
formulated and from time to time revised, is commended as 
likely to secure sympathetic and intelligent application in 
the schoolroom, and at the same time to promote profes- 
sional growth of teachers in service. 

PUPILS WHO CANNOT ACCOMPLISH THE MINIMUM 

It is noted in the foreword that the course " represents 
the minimum attainments to be made by pupils before pro- 
motion to a higher class," and " to secure uniform and 



The Courses of Study 79 

thorough work these standards should be carefully 
observed." 

One adverse comment must here be made : Although, in 
the courses as outlined, only minimum attainments are in- 
sisted upon, attainments easily within the reach of normal- 
minded children, it must be remembered that among: chil- 
dren of school age everywhere there are many for whom 
mastery of the ordinary courses of study is impossible. The 
Salt Lake City schools present no exception to this world- 
wide condition. As is shown in Chapter IX, there are ap- 
proximately 600 children enrolled in the schools who are of 
such a low grade of mentality that they cannot profit by 
strict adherence to even the minimum requirements of 
courses of study prepared for normal children. In its in- 
sistence upon *' uniform and thorough " work, without ex- 
ceptions either stated or implied, the demand is altogether 
too sweeping. It is likely to be misleading, too, since in the 
ordinary schoolrooms throughout the city there are many 
children of this class who for various reasons are not trans- 
ferred to the special (Twelfth) school, where of course it is 
understood that the regular curriculum need not be followed. 

Furthermore, it is questionable whether the ordinary 
courses of study are suitable for a relatively large group of 
children found in all school systems who, while not feeble 
minded, are unable to deal effectively with printed symbols, 
and who are consequently handicapped in their progress 
through those courses of study which are best fitted for 
such children as can readily gain ideas from the printed 
page. 

No exact statement can be made as to the number of chil- 
dren of this type. Estimates vary from 10 to 30 per cent, 
of the entire enrollment. One cannot study the statistics of 
retardation in the Salt Lake City schools, as presented in 
Chapter IX, without coming to the conclusion that the con- 
ditions just set forth, and found to exist throughout the 
country as a whole, also exist here. At this stage of prog- 
ress in our knowledge of the needs of children of this type, 



8o School Organization and Administration 

it would be too much to expect that courses of study should 
provide any complete scheme for the education of pupils 
who are retarded through inability to think in symbols ; but 
every school system should recognize the presence in the 
schools of a considerable number of such children, and in 
general terms indicate the limits within which prescribed 
" minimum attainments " are to be insisted upon. Some 
possible and desirable substitutions for the present pre- 
scribed work will be offered later in this report. The prob- 
lem demands careful study, and the fine attitude of prin- 
cipals and teachers toward attacking vital questions should 
be utilized to formulate a working plan for the next re- 
vision, which will be adapted to local conditions, and by 
means of which the children who are at present misfits in 
the regular courses may find a more objective approach to 
the school arts than current practices provide. 

III. The School Subjects in Detail 

I. MORALS, MANNERS, AND CIVICS 

Prominence Given to this Subject 

Prominence is given to a chapter on morals, manners, 
and civics by giving it first place in the printed outline. It 
would not be easy to suggest a better selection of topics for 
emphasis than are here presented. There can be no ques- 
tion that the phase of a school's influence on the lives of its 
pupils represented by this chapter is of the highest impor- 
tance. We may even say that the part of the work of the 
schools covered by the topics in this chapter transcends in 
importance all the other work outlined, without in the least 
overstating the case; and yet the question arises, Would 
it not be better to teach morals, manners, and civics as the 
occasion calls for such instruction, and through the 
work outlined as reading, literature, history, civics, and 
sociology ? 



The Courses of Study 8i 

The question here raised is not upon the importance of 
this phase of instruction, but upon the most effective way of 
giving it. Teachers are Hkely to get the impression, from 
the apparent segregation of this part of the course from the 
portions of which it is naturally a part, that it is a subject by 
itself and adequately dealt with only when given a separate 
place on the daily program. It is readily admitted that this 
view has the support of many whose opinions are entitled 
to respect. 

Both methods of teaching morals, the direct method and 
the incidental method, are enjoined in the outline. If a sep- 
arate period is to be set apart for this work, the one sug- 
gested in the course of study, the period devoted to the 
opening exercises of the morning, is more appropriate than 
any other period of the day. 



2, THE LANGUAGE, OR ENGLISH GROUP 

Emphasis on English Work 

The following closely related subjects are included: Read- 
ing and literature, phonics, language and grammar, spelling 
and writing. Sixty-four pages of the course of study are 
devoted directty to these various phases of English work, 
and, in addition, suggestions for utilizing the abundant 
opportunities for English teaching afforded by other studies 
are of frequent occurrence. Everywhere in the course of 
study clear and forceful expression is emphasized. This is 
particularly true in history and geography. On page 153 
we find the following statement : 

"Geography offers excellent opportunities fctr training in oral and written 
language. Proper training in thought processes should at the same time de- 
velop power of oral and written expression. Give careful attention to the mode 
of expression in both oral and written work, but do not restrict freedom of expres- 
sion by ill-timed criticism. When one pupil is reciting, require respectful at- 
tention from all others." 



82 School Ormnization and Administration 



6 



On p. 114, " Much of the foregoing subject matter (his- 
tory) may be considered in language " ; and on p. 121, " An 
excellent opportunity is presented in the study of history to 
create an appreciation of and a love for many beautiful and 
inspiring literary productions, poems, and songs." Suitable 
selections are suggested. A careful examination of the 
chapters dealing with different phases of English work leads 
to the conclusion that the course has been worked out with 
care and intelligence, and in its content is in general accord 
w^ith the theory and practice in teaching English which pre- 
vails in the best school systems of the country. 



Reading and Literature 

The strong points in the treatment of this phase of the 
work seem to be : 

1. The effectiveness of the method used in teaching be- 
ginners to read. During the first two or three years of a 
child's school life proficiency in reading is the main recjuisite 
for promotion from grade to grade, and a pupil's progress 
throughout the school course is influenced largely by his 
power to read and interpret the books to wdiich he has access. 
From the first attention is centered upon the meaning of 
what is read. 

2. The ban is placed upon nagging about minor inaccu- 
racies. " Placing undue stress upon errors, grammatical 
construction and inflections, per se, will do little to secure 
cogent thinking and fluent and flexible expression." (p. 47.) 

3. " The stir of the inner man, not the criticisms of outer 
manifestations, makes for improvement, development, 
growth." (p. 43.) 

4. Emphasis upon the importance of strong selections, 
possessing unity of effect. 

5. The insistence upon the teacher's seeing the end of 
each reading lesson, upon purpose, plan, and a well-thought- 
out presentation. 



The Courses of Study 83 

6. Dramatization as an adjunct to good reading. 

7. The care taken to insure home reading. 

Several suitable books have been suggested in connection 
with the prescribed reading, in classes above the third grade, 
and pupils are shown how they can obtain these books. An 
incidental aim is to teach pupils the use of a library and to 
bring them frequently into its environment. The results are 
held to be, to an extent at least, a measure of the teacher's 
power to inspire her pupils with a genuine love of reading. 

Good Oral Reading 

A departure from the usual procedure in oral reading, 
and one likely to forward this aim, was noted with approval 
in two classrooms. Ordinarily the cliild who is reading has 
no audience in any true sense. All members of the class 
have the same book and follow more or less attentively the 
reader's performance. He has no very strong motive for 
clear enunciation or the cultivation of a tone that will carry 
to distant parts of the room. No one needs to depend upon 
his performance in order to understand the paragraph or the 
selection which he reads. In these two instances the reading 
was from an interesting library book, not the regular school 
reader. Only one copy was available, but the children who 
in succession read from this book had a real audience, and 
they held their audience, too. There was the keenest inter- 
est in the story, and the attention was absolute. 

If a reader failed momentarily to make himself under- 
stood, mass sentiment made itself felt. The effort of the 
reader was directed toward making the class understand the 
story. The story was one that the class wished to under- 
stand; consequently the exercise claimed and secured the 
undivided attention of all. 

The practice of oral reading under conditions which hold 
the reader responsible for making the thought of the author 
understood by a real audience ought to be far more common 
in schools than it now is. 



84 School Organization atid Administration 

Where Improvements Might Be Made 

Two reservations must here be made with regard to 
directions otherwise excellent : 

1. In the outline for first grade, teachers are warned not 
to allow children to read orally till they can read smoothly. 

This implies that children just beginning to read are re- 
quired to commit to memory, for the moment, every sen- 
tence that they read orally. They then look up from the 
book and "deliver " each sentence to the class. 

It is evident that only very brief sentences can be so com- 
mitted and delivered, and that children who adhere to this 
practice are in danger of being held to the reading of primer 
literature long after they have sufficient power to read books 
of real merit but containing sentences too long to be ren- 
dered glibly and without any stumbling. In the beginning, 
if the child himself can get the thought from the printed 
page, he is doing the essential thing. As early as possible, 
however, he should be taught to read by phrases rather than 
word by word, in order to facilitate his interpretation of an 
author's thought. 

It is not so much a question of how fluently pupils go 
through a certain class of reading matter, as a question of 
the sort of reading habits that are being formed. 

2. The course is entirely lacking in directions for silent 
reading. One great purpose in teaching reading, and one 
which should receive some attention even from the first, is 
its value for the reader's own benefit. In the course of the 
survey much oral reading was heard, and, on the whole, 
it was good reading; but definite practice in silent reading 
for the thought of the selection was never seen in progress. 
Power in this direction is implied in the provision for home 
reading, but there should be definite school practice in order 
to make sure of adequate results. The schoolrooms of the 
city are well supplied with reading material. This is espe- 
cially noticeable in the primary grades, where even in the 
first grade children read from ten to twelve or more primers 



The Courses of Study 85 

and first readers. In the intermediate grades some of the 
worl^ in history is done in the reading period. This is true 
also of hygiene. In both cases the textbooks used, having 
been written with more regard to Hterary form than some 
books of their class, lend themselves very well to this time- 
saving plan. 

Phonics 

The outline in phonics provides for the necessary amount 
of work in ear training, and gives a good working list of 
phonograms, suffixes, and prefixes. 

The introduction of diacritical markings is very wisely 
postponed until the latter half of the third year in school. 
The outline makes no definite provision for instruction in 
the use of the dictionary, but the phonetic study prepares 
pupils to interpret dictionary markings and to distinguish 
the root forms from which words are evolved. 

The course is progressive and practical. 

Language and Grammar 

The strength of the work in the primary grades seems to 
be found in : 

1. Making grammar work dramatic and in confining the 
exercises to troublesome verbs, as, *' action and object exer- 
cises involving the verbs, pronouns, and adjectives used in 
class B of first grade ; also set ; sit ; sat ; lie ; lain ; lay ; laid." 

(P-72.), 

2. Stimulating the imagination of the pupils by the use 
of pictures. " Pictures are always available, and, if good, 
never fail to stimulate the interest of children. . . . Pic- 
tures furnish an excellent basis for imaginative stories, 
which may be given orally or in written form." (p. 67.) 
In circular No. 14, the primary supervisor gives a valuable 
discussion of stories from pictures. She begins the dis- 
cussion with this much-needed caution : 

"The picture story has too often meant to both teacher and pupil a descrip- 
tion of the picture, when it should mean the story which the picture tells." 



86 School Organization and Administration 

3. Giving much time to oral expression before beginning 
written work. 

"The stimulation of the desire to use good language, and much practice in 
correct oral expression in the school, are imperative to counteract the tendency 
to use incorrect forms on the playground." (p. 68.) "No written work to be 
required in this class (Second A), but much drill in the retelling of short stories 
limited to one or two characters, and a single action, previously told by the 
teacher." (p. 72.) 

4. Making every lesson a language lesson. 

"All the language work of this class (First A) should be oral work, and every 
recitation should be, in a greater or less degree, a language lesson." (p. 69.) 

5. Committing to memory many fine models of literature. 

"Selections of poetry should be committed to memory to be recited, to be 
sung, to be made the subject of conversation. This exercise may be conducted 
on a generous scale." (p. 67.) 

6. The frequent use of the dramatic method in oral com- 
position. 

"Dramatization of simple stories to give freedom in oral expression and 
make the thought of the story real." (p. 68.) "The stories and poems of this 
grade (First A) arc to be told and recited by the teacher, and should not be read 
to the children." (p. 69.) 

Spirit of the Upper-Grade Work 

The spirit of the course in language and grammar out- 
lined for the grammar grades is illustrated by the following 
paragraphs under " Suggestions for Grammar Grades " : 

"The first requirement of the school is to cause the child to be at home in 
his school world; to exjiress his tlioughts here as freely and frankly as he does 
elsewhere; to be as spontaneous in his expression in school as he is out of it. 
This will scarcely come to jmss if his mind is centered too much on the form, if 
he is too conscious of the possibility of error. 

"Tlie function of all language and grammar work is to cause the learner to 
come into full possession of himself; to be sensitive and responsive to the influ- 
ence of thought; to be able to express himself fluently, elegantly, thoughtfully; 
to know the fitting word or phrase and to know why it is the most fitting term 
to use. To know the parts of speech, the rules and definitions of technical 



The Courses of Study 87 

English, and the analysis of each and every sentence, only is really worth while 
when this knowledge can be transformed into working capital which can be 
invested properly and profitably in all the occasions of the life of thought." 

Some of the admirable qualities in language work for 
grammar grades are : 

1. Composition laws and grammar rules are considered 
of value only so far as they aid the pupil to speak and write 
with clearness, force, and ease. 

2. The insistence upon the study of model selections in 
teaching composition and appreciating the ideal in literature. 

3. The idea that language study is a part of every lesson. 

"Language teaching is not to be confined to the language lesson alone. 
Every lesson is to a degree a language lesson. It is of little avail to la^^ stress on 
rules of language during the regular lesson, and then for all the rest of the day 
permit children to be careless in their talk and written work." (p. 84.) 

4. The equal emphasis upon oral and written expression. 

5. The emphasis upon content as well as form. 

"Subjects for conversation and for composition are always to be adapted to 
the age, knowledge, and interests of the children. Something to say and a 
desire to say it are both essential prerequisites to good language." (p. 86.) 

6. Constant attention to enlarging the students' vocab- 
ularies. 

"In all language work the child must not only be taught to master his vo- 
cabulary, but he must be taught to acquire a vocabulary worthy of mastery. 
If the child is to acquire an adequate and worthy vocabulary, the teacher must 
purposefully guide him in the acquisition and use of that vocabulary." (p. 85.) 



SPELLING 

Directions for the Work in Spelling 

The suggestions and directions for teaching spelling given 
in the course of study are excellent. A spelling- honk is used, 
beginning with the third grade. Work in phonics which, as 
a distinct course, terminates with the third grade, is not 



88 School Organization and Administration 

to be neglected. A review of the phonograms previously 
taught is called for in the fourth-grade course in spelling. 
In the fourth and every succeeding grade to the eighth the 
correlation idea is emphasized in the following direction : 

"Many words are to be learned as they are needed in the study of different 
subjects, or as the child's written expression demands. Spelling drill should be 
a lively exercise." 

This excellent suggestion also appears : 

" Prevention is better than cure in spelling, and the skilled teacher will aim 
to avoid all errors by making necessary suggestions before the lesson is studied, 
not after. There will be some errors even with this careful assigAment, but the 
number will be small and may receive individual attention." 

And again : " Anticipate errors in spelling and try to 
safeguard the pupils against making them. It is easier to 
do than to undo and do." Also: Oral spelling is advocated 
" for guaranteeing the correct sound interpretation," but — 
" The written form is the final form and the one most used 
in normal life after school; consequently it should be the 
real test of a pupil's capability." 

The use of the dictionary is enjoined, and some of the 
possible causes of poor spelling are pointed out. 



Time Given to Spelling 

Although the time devoted to spelling is not prescribed 
in the course of study, it is evidently regarded by the teachers 
as a highly important subject. In many of the grammar 
grades fully half an hour per day, or one-tenth of the entire 
school time, is devoted to study and recitation in this sub- 
ject, and even a longer expenditure of time is not uncom- 
mon. Keen interest is stimulated by a lively competition 
between schools, and by uniform competitive tests formu- 
lated in the office of the superintendent. As measured by 
the survey by rjieans of the Ayres standard tests, as will 
be described in some detail in Chapter VIII. the results of 



The Courses of Study 89 

this rather extreme attention to spelling show in a very high 
score ; but it is a question whether the children of Salt Lake 
City are not sacrificing something in other lines by devoting 
so large a proportion of the total time available to spelling. 

The first investigator of note, Dr. J. M. Rice, concluded 
that more than fifteen minutes a day devoted to spelling was 
time absolutely wasted. According to this view five per 
cent, of the total time would be ample ; yet, estimated on the 
basis of the median of the table. Salt Lake City children 
spend eight and three-tenths per cent, of the total time upon 
this subject. During the year 1909 the elementary schools 
of Boston, New York, Chicago, Rochester, Cincinnati, Indi- 
anapolis, St. Louis, Milwaukee, Kansas City, San Francisco, 
and Cleveland devoted an average of only five and seven- 
tenths per cent, of their time to spelling (estimated from 
Table XIII), a proportion not greatly in excess of Dr. Rice's 
suggested maximum. According to average standards the 
children in the Salt Lake City schools are good spellers. We 
would not say they spell too well, but we believe as good re- 
sults could be secured with less expenditure of time. 

Some admirable characteristics of the course of study in 
spelling are : 

1. The insistence in all spelling work upon anticipating 
errors. 

2. Emphasis upon the relation of pronunciation to 
spelling. 

3. The constant injunction to relate spelling to composi- 
tion activities. " The real test of good spelling is found in 
the written composition." 

4. Emphasis upon training children to use the dictionary. 

5. Insistence upon selecting words from geography, his- 
tory, etc. 

6. Much drill upon lists of words commonly misspelled. 



90 



School Organization and Administration 






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The Courses of Study 91 

4. WRITING 

The Method Used 

In the first half of the first grade the course of study 
calls for free work with chalk on the blackboard, to train 
the children to the control of their larger arm muscles. In 
the second half unruled paper is used in addition to the 
blackboard. Large writing with full arm movement is 
enjoined, — no guide lines until the second-B grade is 
reached. The course allows comparatively little writing 
with pencil, but much upon the blackboard. After this 
more writing may be required of pupils, but care is to be 
exercised lest fatigue engender carelessness of efifort. Cor- 
rect movement, proper position, and reasonable speed are 
to be insisted upon. The letter forms are those now gen- 
erally used in schools, a medium slant. 

The survey stafif is of the opinion that the writing of the 
children in the Salt Lake City schools compares favorably 
with that found in other cities, and the tests described in 
Chapter VIII show that it is considerably above the average. 

5. HISTORY, CIVICS, AND SOCIOLOGY 

The General Plan 

The course of study in history provides .for the teaching 
of United States history in the fifth, sixth, and eighth 
grades. In the eighth grade, B class, a general review of 
United States history is called for, following a well-pre- 
pared outline. Besides the regular textbook with which 
each pupil is supplied, several reference books of wider 
scope are accessible to the pupils of each eighth-grade room, 
and several desk books of excellent quality are provided for 
the teachers. 

In the seventh grade United States history is incidental 
to the work in geography. North America is the topic, and 



92 School Organization and Adminislration 

it is enjoined that historical information pertaining to the 
division being studied shall receive special consideration. 
United States history through biography has a place in 
every grade below the fifth, through such study of one or 
more of our great historical personalities as is suited to the 
age of the children. It is included in these grades chiefly 
on account of its ethical value. The ethical aim, in fact, 
dominates the course in history as a whole. The following 
statement found in the course of study will illustrate this: 

" No other subject so touches both the head and heart of mankind. The ethi- 
cal impulse should be the basis of all instruction in all grades. It is the goodness 
of mankind that has evolved the good of civilization, and the child should be 
taught to appreciate the nobility of those whose acts constitute the history of 
the race and have determined the progress of ideas." (p. io8.) 



Attention to Local History 

Much attention is given in each grade to local history and 
institutions. In the fifth grade, A class, the history of Utah 
receives special emphasis. An excellent outline is furnished. 
In the fifth grade, B class, and in the sixth grade, emphasis 
is placed upon the functions of the various departments of 
the city government. Too much praise cannot be given to 
the treatment suggested for such topics as the police de- 
partment, the fire department, the health department, the 
garbage system, irrigation, public parks, the city's water 
system, and the general plan of city government. 

An especially noteworthy feature of the work in civics is 
the way in which each city department head has been led to 
cooperate with the schools by furnishing an outline or de- 
scription of the functions of his department, and the way 
it fits into the general scheme of city government. At the 
invitation of the grammar-grade supervisor the department 
heads meet the teachers, from time to time, and explain in 
detail the scope of the work which they have previously out- 
lined in somewhat brief form. The survey staff is of the 
opinion that like enterprise on the part of supervisory offi- 



The Courses of Study 93 

cers, resulting in hearty cooperation on the part of city de- 
partment heads in deaHng with community civics, is far 
from common, and they commend it without reservation. 

Excellent Features of the Course 

Among the excellent features of the course under discus- 
sion we note : 

1. The emphasis placed upon making history (a) vivid, 
(b) a source for creating ideals, (c) correlation in the 
method of presentation with the composition approach to a 
subject (pages 68 and 69, with 109). 

2. The emphasis upon purposeful work. The purpose in 
the early work is apparently not to teach facts, but to instill 
ideals by making historic personalities and national and local 
scenes live again in the imaginations of the children. 

3. That directions are given to consider much of the 
subject matter as suited to the language work. 

4. The definiteness with which the course in history is 
presented to the teachers. 

5. Investigations by classes are recommended. 

6. The course for upper grammar grades should stim- 
ulate a sense of gratitude for and loyalty to the city 
government. 

7. The use of literary selections to supplement history 
talks is suggested, and a suitable list is given. 

6. NATURE STUDY 

The Printed Outline 

Although nature study is outlined as a separate subject, 
the fact that geography, history, and nature work in the 
elementary school should be considered as a unit is not lost 
sight of. We find this paragraph : 

"Nature study and history, industrially and socially considered, cannot be 
separated from geography in the primary grades. Many of the basic geographi- 



94 School Organization and Administration 

cal concepts depend upon certain phj-sical laws which must be understood to 
gain the concept, and a mental picture of some of the great migrations of the 
race, of the adjustments and readjustments of a people to a changing and de- 
veloping environment on the great march of progress, are necessary to give 
meaning and value to a study of the earth as the home of man." (p. 128.) 

The desired correlation is left for the teacher to work out. 
The outline might to advantage do more in this direction. 
The correlation of nature study with language is hinted at 
in the language course (p. 78), but not emphasized. In 
the case of other subjects the correlation idea is usually kept 
in the foreground. 

The human aspect of the course is made prominent. 

" Children are not interested in the contour or relief of a body of land. They 
care nothing for land forms or water divisions, but they are intensel}' interested 
in children of other lands. How these children look, what they do, how they 
live, are subjects of unfailing interest and wonder, and it is through these 
subjects that we must reach land and water divisions and strictly geographical 
concepts." (pp. 128-9.) 

The work in each grade is well within the grasp of the 
average city child with limited opportunity for observation. 
It is very evidently a minor course in the primary-school 
curriculum. The natural working from the home out into 
the nation is a commendable feature of the course for pri- 
mary grades. 

The work outlined for the grammar grades is largely geo- 
graphical, though some definite work in physics is included. 
It is suggested that in the last two grammar grades at least 
one regular period per week be devoted to this subject. 

Diversity in Kind and Amount of Work Done 

There is considerable diversity in the interpretation of the 
course in different schools, and by teachers of the same 
grade. This, however, is seen to be desirable when the pur- 
pose of the course is taken into account. The training in ob- 
servation and reasoning from cause to effect is considered, 
as it should be, of more importance thrui the acquisition of 



The Courses of Study 95 

set facts. The teacher can best develop these powers in 
children by giving most prominence to those topics which 
most appeal to her own interest, and which therefore she 
can canse to be of interest to her class. Nature study is the 
one subject in the course in which wide latitude may be 
accorded to the individual teacher without defeating the 
purposes which the course is intended to serve. This would 
seem to be the theory also as to different schools. 

For instance, in one school, the Webster, bird study 
seemed at the time of the survey to be receiving much more 
attention than was in evidence at any other school visited 
by the survey. In each of the eighteen rooms of the school 
a different bird had been chosen from a list of fifty, com- 
mon to the locality. After reasonable time for study of the 
bird of her choice, each teacher made an outline which she 
used with her own class, and which she then explained to 
the other seventeen teachers of the school, the principal hav- 
ing meanwhile caused copies to be made for their use. Each 
teacher devoted the nature-study periods of six weeks to the 
bird of her choice, and later two periods to each of the other 
seventeen birds, having as an aid in this task the outlines 
prepared by her colleagues. Some encroachment on the 
time usually devoted to drawing was permitted. 

The bird chosen for intensive study by a class was studied 
first from life, then more closely from a stuffed specimen. 
In the course of this study it was drawn by the children in 
plain crayon, then its habitat was drawn, then the bird in 
its habitat ; then the process was repeated by the children in 
the same order, using appropriate colors. Finally the bird 
was modeled in clay and cast in plaster. All drawing was 
on large gray paper, mounted on the blackboard. Surpris- 
ingly good results were shown, and astonishingly free and 
rapid work. The children will never forget the characteris- 
tics of birds thus studied. A fitting climax was afforded 
for this piece of cooperative work by the grammar-grade 
supervisor, who saw to it that mimeograph sets of the out- 
lines prepared by the teachers of the Webster School were 



96 School Organization and Administration 

furnished to all other schools of the city. This particular 
instance of sharing the benefits of the enterprise of one 
school with the city as a whole is only a single sample of a 
highly commendable custom in vogue in the Salt Lake City 
schools. 

School and Home Gardening 

The course of study lays stress upon the school garden 
and the home garden as adjuncts in nature study. In this 
particular, as well as in its aim to cultivate habits of observa- 
tion and incidentally to impart a body of useful information, 
the course suggested for Salt Lake City is in keeping with 
the courses suggested for other cities. The members of 
the survey did not see evidences that practice was generally 
up to the outlines provided. The school board has recently 
made provision for exceptionally good work in this subject, 
in some of the outlying sections, by purchasing ample tracts 
of land in connection with a few of its newer buildings, 
but in connection with the older schools little or nothing 
is done. 

The Whittier School furnishes the best example of the 
use which may be made of the land for educational pur- 
poses. Of its nine-acre tract, two and one-half acres are 
devoted to the school garden. Plans for group gardens and 
individual gardens are worked out in the school as a part 
of the regular course in nature study. Garden work is done 
outside of school hours, and during the vacation period. 
The part of the product belonging to individuals is taken 
to the homes to supply family needs. The portion belonging 
to the school, after being displayed by sample at the State 
Fair and in bulk at the school, is sold to school patrons at 
regular market prices. Last year the money was used to 
buy imported flower bulbs. These were planted in October 
by all teachers and pupils, in conformity with a color scheme 
in the evolution of which all had had a part. The aim was 
to secure individual interest in a community problem. At 



The Courses of Study 97 

one time early last spring 1,200 to 1,500 flowers were in 
bloom. 

The school site purchased by the board of education in- 
cluded part of an old fruit orchard. The trees were pruned 
by schoolboys with tools from the manual-training shop, the 
work being done under the direction of the principal of the 
school and the superintendent of parks. As a result of this 
pruning the trees were loaded with fruit the next season. 
The fruit was green when school opened in September, but 
was allowed to remain on the trees untouched for four 
weeks, until it was thoroughly ripe. It was then picked by 
committees of pupils and taken to the domestic-science room, 
where a part of it was canned by the girls as a lesson in 
the regular course in cooking. The portion that was not 
used in making jam, jelly, plum butter, etc., was distributed 
among the pupils in the various classrooms. The canned 
fruit was displayed at the State Fair. 

This eminently practical application of nature study, made 
under the direction of the principal of the Whittier School, 
is not surpassed by any similar enterprise in a public school 
system elsewhere with which the members of the survey are 
acquainted. It represents a tendency which is beginning to 
make itself felt in the " Back to the Land " movement in 
many of our cities, and it is worthy of all the encouragement 
which school officials can give it. This case of individual 
work ought to become common in the city. The educational 
value of such work is very large. 

7. ARITHMETIC 

Nature of the Printed Course 

The courses of study in arithmetic throughout the country 
are now so nearly alike in requirements that the chief differ- 
ence between any two courses is in the form of statement 
and the kinds of exercises prescribed. Grade limits are prac- 
tically the same. In Salt Lake City, children in the first 



98 School Organization attd Administration 

grade count within the hmit of 100, add within the limit 
of ten, and they learn how many 2's in 4, 3's in 6, etc. 
There is no haste. Number facts are to be discovered, and 
not told or explained. The discoveries are to be made 
through the exercise of motor activity. Attention is called 
to the fact that mental growth is even more a question of 
time than physical growth. Therefore teachers are advised 
to see that conditions are such that the child if mentally 
ready will reach the number fact or relation desired. If he 
cannot reach that fact or relation without help he is not 
ready for that step, and the teacher is to wait patiently for 
growth in mental power. This is sound doctrine, and it 
represents the practice now general in progressive school 
systems. 

Number facts and relations are to be developed objec- 
tively, with no written work in first grade and only a mod- 
erate amount in the second grade. The multiplication tables 
are begun in the third grade, but their completion is not 
called for till the fourth grade is reached. In the fifth grade 
the emphasis is upon fractions, though some simple oral 
fractional work has occurred earlier. In the sixth grade 
decimal fractions are to be carefully and thoroughly taught. 
Percentage furnishes the chief portion of the seventh-grade 
work, and in the eighth grade special applications of per- 
centage are considered and the earlier work of the course 
is reviewed. This is essentially the work today in all good 
courses of study. Some changes in upper-grade work for 
the seventh and particularly the eighth will be discussed 
further on, in connection witli the Junior High School. 

The Teaching Observed 

The methods of teaching this subject observed in the 
schoolrooms visited were substantially in accord with the 
sound pedagogic directions of the course of study. The 
time devoted to the subject shows the same wide vari- 
ation that has been pointed out in connection with spelling. 



The Courses of Study 99 

The average time given to arithmetic in the eleven cities 
in Table XIII is 15.2 per cent, of the total time. The median 
time devoted to the subject in Salt Lake City is 16.6 per cent, 
of the total time. Both the time given to the subject and the 
results shown by the standard tests, described at length in 
Chapter IX, make it clear that arithmetic is not neglected in 
Salt Lake City. A recent circular here reproduced will serve 
to show the intelligent care with which the brief directions 
of the course of study are supplemented, from time to time 
and as occasion arises : 

January 27, 1914. 
To Principals and Teachers: 

Arithmetic 

The Course is to be considered as mandatory in all essential particulars, and 
the subject-matter given in the textbook is all to be taught. It is, however, 
necessary to consider some principles and processes as relatively more important 
than others. In these, pupils will be expected to reach a high degree of efficiency 
consistent with age and normal possibilities. 

In the following graphic representation, an attempt is made to show at a 
glance which of certain essentials should be emphasized or reviewed. It will 
be observed that the fundamental processes are to be thoroughly taught in the 
fourth grade; however, that they are to be reviewed and strengthened in each 
succeeding grade. The subject of fractions is to be thoroughly considered in 
the fifth grade, but must be reviewed and strengthened in each grade above the 
fifth grade, etc. Thus each grade above the grade in which any important 
principle has been considered will be expected to increase the efficiency of pupils 
in that subject in so far as reviews and limited teaching can make for efficiency. 

In the reviews care must be exercised to add new power and knowledge as 
well as to make present possessions clear and ready. Too frequently reviews 
cover the old ground in the old way with little or no profit. 



Grade 4 


Grade 5 


Grade 6 


Grade 7 


Grade 8 


a 


a 


a 


a 


a Fundamental Processes 




b 


b 


b 


b Fractions 

Denominate Nimibers 






c 


c 
d 


c and Measurements 
d Percentage and Interest 
e Business Application 



G. N. Child, 
Supervisor of Grammar Grades. 



loo School Organization and Administration 

8. GEOGRAPHY 

The Course Good 

This course of study provides for the study of geography 
from the third to the seventh grades inclusive. When the 
Salt Lake City course of study in geography is compared 
with the courses for our better city school systems, no sig- 
nificant differences appear. The general movement in all 
the courses is now from the home and its environment to 
the earth as a whole, and from this to North America and 
a detailed study of the United States. 

The Salt Lake City course emphasizes the study of home 
or local geography in an especially effective way. Few 
places afford better opportunities for teaching land and 
water forms by direct personal observation than does the 
Salt Lake Valley. The use of the sand table is advised and 
practiced in the third grade, so that as soon as the impres- 
sion is gained through observation its expression may fol- 
low. Pictures and objects are collected by teachers and 
pupils and freely used. 

The outlines and the suggestions for teaching contained 
in them are admirable. They are definite, without being 
too exhaustive, and the plan of work as outlined is especially 
adapted to the region about Salt Lake City. A brief survey 
of the modes of life of primitive man leads up to a study of 
farming and cattle raising under modern conditions in the 
neighborhood of the Great Salt Lake. The outline includes 
an experimental study of the geographical features of the 
city and surroundings, and of the formation of soil ; a brief 
survey of dry farming in Utah ; the sugar-beet industry ; 
sheep and cattle raising; and the leading manufactures. 

It fs a question whether tlie study of the sugar-beet indus- 
try should be carried so far in this grade, since eight-year-old 
children are scarcely capable of contrasting the political 
effects of the sugar-cane industry with the political effects of 



The Courses oj Study loi 

the sugar-beet industry. Studies of social and political 
causes and effects may well be postponed until pupils are 
sufficiently matured to form intelligent conclusions. Initial 
study of the world's commerce and of the reasons for the 
exchange of goods between states and countries is, however, 
quite within the grasp of third-grade pupils, and the teachers 
who present the subject as outlined are laying a broad foun- 
dation for future study of commercial exchange. On the 
whole, these outlines for third-grade geography are models 
of their kind. 



The Instruction Observed 

The home city and the home state having been studied 
intensively, the child is prepared to comprehend what his 
teacher and his books have to say about other political 
divisions and cities. This is the method advocated in the 
course. It is the method of comparison. Map drawing 
is practiced wholly from the point of view of gaining power 
to interpret maps. It is justly regarded as of indispensable 
importance. Rapidly drawn relief and outline maps, with 
just the amount of detail called for in the topic under con- 
sideration, are therefore emphasized in all grades. 

A modern course in geography makes large demands upon 
the scholarship and resources of teachers. In a recent report 
of the Massachusetts State Board of Education we find a 
recognition of the immensely increased scope of the geog- 
raphy of today, as compared with that of half a century ago : 

"It is hard to realize the immense distance that separates the scanty sailor 
geography of half a century ago from the complicated network of relations of 
physical, social, and political facts, gathered in 50 years of untiring research, 
which now, under the name of geography, form a part of the daily food of all 
children in the elementary school." 

In view of this situation it is essential that schools be 
liberally supplied with suitable books, so that the children 
can obtain for themselves the greater part of the information 



I02 School Organization and Administration 

for which the course of study calls. The school board of 
Salt Lake City has met this requirement with liberality. 
The children are well supplied with supplementary geo- 
graphical readers, as well as with modern basal textbooks 
in the subject. 

9. MUSIC 

The course of study in music appears to be very carefully 
arranged as to grading, with especial and detailed directions 
to the teachers in the lowest grades. These indicate an ap- 
preciation of the ideals of primary-grade methods in music, 
as advocated by the leaders in the teaching of the subject. 

Instruction Observed 

It was evident to members of the survey, as they observed 
the manner in which exercises in music were conducted, that 
much well-directed effort has been devoted to this study 
through a series of years. When the junior high school 
plan becomes fully established, so that all instruction in the 
seventh and eighth grades may be on the departmental plan, 
the music work of these grades will undoubtedly show better 
results than are now generally obtainable, for then it will 
be possible to have the instruction given by teachers who 
have shown special aptitude for the work. At present, as 
might be expected, there is considerable variation in the en- 
thusiasm for music manifested in different schools, accord- 
ing as they are less or more fortunate in having upper-grade 
teachers who have talent in this direction. 

In the Lafayette School an extremely effective plan for 
furnishing motive for good music work is carried out in 
the morning exercises. The children of each of the twenty- 
two classes sing in turn for the entire school. As the school 
has no auditorium, the children who are to sing assemble 
in the corridor of each floor on successive mornings. All 
doors are open, and the children in the rooms sit at atten- 



The Courses of Study 103 

tion. Thus they learn to be appreciative listeners. Several 
of the teachers contribute to the success of the plan by sing- 
ing in their turn for the entertainment of the pupils. 



10. ART AND CONSTRUCTION 

Need for More Supervision 

At the time of the survey the art work in the grammar 
grades was suffering from lack of supervision, and appar- 
ently but little was being done. Those of the grade teachers 
who had some special talent for the work were able unaided 
to keep up their interest and secure results, but the majority 
of the teachers were in need of the constant inspiration, 
help, and suggestion which a competent supervisor could 
give. The course of study appears, in the main, to be in line 
with the best thought on the subject, but to a teacher who 
has not had excellent art training it would seem too indefi- 
nite to serve as a sufficient guide. There are few grade 
teachers who can do creditable work in this department 
without the advantage of frequent supervision, no matter 
how minutely the course is laid out for them. 

It is hard to understand how the small financial saving 
brought about by relegating the supervisor of art work to a 
part-time assignment in one of the high schools can be con- 
sidered, by any one conversant with the principles of good 
school management, as a justifiable piece of economy. As 
matters now stand, the art and construction work is planned 
and supervised in the primary grades, while between these 
grades and the high school there is a wide gap where the 
work appears to be deteriorating by reason of lack of expert 
guidance. Other cities as large as Salt Lake City employ a 
supervisor and one or more assistants. The unfortunate 
effects of neglect in this department should be remedied 
without delay. There should be a supervisor in charge of 
the department of art instruction, and the director of art 



I04 School Organization and Administration 

and construction in primary grades should be an assistant 
in the department. Responsibihty should not be divided. If 
such severe economy as has been practiced in this instance 
had been really necessary, a less harmful plan to bring it 
about would have been to retain the supervisor in the field 
and divide the primary work between the art supervisor and 
the primary supervisor, the latter taking the work in con- 
struction. This, however, is not advocated. Salt Lake City 
should employ a supervisor in this department and at least 
one assistant, if it is desired to keep the art work of the 
schools abreast of the times. As much supervision of art 
as this is found in cities no larger than Salt Lake City, 
and in some of these special teachers are employed in addi- 
tion to teach drawing in the seventh and eighth grades. 

The Art and Handwork Outlines 

The designs used as plates in the special course of study 
in art and handwork for primary grades have elements that 
are too scattered, with a very poor relation of the several 
parts and proportions. The design shapes are clumsy and 
uninteresting, and have little or no relation to the objects 
which they are supposed to decorate. Free paper cutting is 
almost entirely ignored. This activity is most valuable to 
pupils in acquiring ability to represent form and general 
proportions. It should be used frequently with young chil- 
dren as a means of free expression. The drawings printed 
in the course of study are very weak. The lettering is poor, 
and the arrangement uninteresting. Every plate reproduced 
in any course of art instruction should be a model in itself 
of good drawing, proper arrangement, adequate spacing, 
and well-proportioned lettering. However, the photog-raphs 
accompanying later circulars show articles in considerable 
variety, and these are well proportioned. It is fair to as- 
sume therefore'that the next edition of the course in primary 
art and handwork will be comparatively free from the faults 
just noted. 



The Courses of Study 105 



Drazving in the Lower Grades 

The illustrative drawing in the primary grades should 
have a closer relation to primary-grade reading and dra- 
matics, and should occupy more of the time allowed for 
drawing. Too much of the primary construction work is 
imitative, or else is done entirely from dictation. In the 
kindergarten, initiative is encouraged and the imagination 
given scope. Seeing only the printed course of study in 
art and handwork, one would infer that all this comes to an 
abrupt end in the first grade. The art supervisor in these 
grades should be in closer touch with the primary supervisor, 
so as to utilize stories and games for illustrative purposes. 
The outlines in construction for grades one to four, fur- 
nished in typewritten form by the supervisor, presumably 
for inclusion in a revision of the present printed course, 
meet this requirement. They are sensible, well arranged, 
and adapted to supplement and illustrate school activities. 

Modeling 

Nearly all branches of modeling seem to be emphasized 
in each grade. We suggest that it would be better to em- 
phasize low relief in certain grades, high relief in certain 
grades, modeling in the round in certain grades, and pottery 
in certain grades. 

Modeling in clay is hardly adapted for execution in the 
ordinary classroom with its sloping desks. Casting in plas- 
ter of Paris should always be done in a separate room 
adapted to the purpose. The manual-training shops in most 
schools are without classes some portion of each week. 
They might well be utilized for clay and plaster work. It 
would save much labor and conserve the time of teachers 
and pupils if the material for this work were kept and 
used in one place, instead of having to be distributed in 
small lots to the different rooms of a building. Some of 



io6 School Organization and Administration 

the manual-training rooms are large enough to afford space 
for modeling, even while other work is in progress. 



Other Constructional Activities 

The work of bookbinding in the fifth grade is not made 
to serve a real end. Only the boys of a class now take this 
work, and since the portfolios that are made would serve 
but half the class, they are not used. These projects should 
serve the admirable purpose of giving concrete application 
to the otherwise abstract principle of design, by providing 
objects of real use which lend themselves to decoration. 

There appears to be no connection between sewing and 
art. The principle of correlation, so well worked out in 
the academic part of the course of study, should find its 
most effective application in art and handwork both for 
girls and boys. The subject of design is not developed in 
a progressive manner from grade to grade, as it might 
easily be if manual training, sewing, and art were included 
in the scheme of correlation. 



II. MANUAL TRAINING 

A Poor Course of Study 

The shop work is limited to wood-working processes of 
a single type — cabinet making — and the related drawing 
is extremely limited in scope. The course lacks justification 
from the standpoint of application in local industries, as 
well as on the score of educational value. The content of 
the course is extremely limited, considering the time given 
to the subject, and some of the work, for example lettering, 
comes far too early in the course. Working drawings are 
not, as a rule, taught with any degree of profit to grades 
below the eighth, yet a greater emphasis is placed on work- 
ing drawings in the earlier part of this course than in the 



The Courses of Study 107 

later part; the fifth grade having 29^^^ hours, the sixth 
21]/^ hours, and the seventh 17^ hours given to such work. 
Time spent on working drawings below the eighth grade 
is time practically wasted. The child does not get his work- 
ing facts from the drawing, but depends upon the teacher. 
To understand the conventional procedure usual in making 
clear working drawings, greater maturity is required than 
the fifth, sixth, or seventh-grade pupil has attained. The 
place for drawings for children of these ages is in connec- 
tion with design, which this course wholly lacks. The uni- 
formity in the work throughout the city, observed by the 
members of the survey, indicates that there is no attempt at 
adjustment to individuals or groups. 

Work Needs Enlarging 

In the selection of projects one interest only seems to 
have been in mind, that of supplying needs for the home, 
and the same objects are made by all boys till the eighth 
grade is reached, when some little choice is allowed. It can 
hardly be assumed that all homes have the same needs. Ad- 
ditional interests should be drawn upon, such as sports, in- 
dustrial studies, and trade activities. Printing, the study 
of home carpentry, the making of playground apparatus 
and simple laboratory equipment, readily suggest them- 
selves. As the course stands, little initiative is possible for 
teacher or pupil. The work as planned is stereotyped, and 
seems to have only a disciplinary aim. One material, wood, 
is involved throughout the entire course, and the kinds of 
this are limited. The most common uses of wood seem to 
be ignored. The shop processes connected with " squaring 
off " are continually emphasized, for four years. The 
printed steps are not correct as to teaching-practice or shop- 
practice. It seems unfortunate that this particular process 
should be given such prominence. 



io8 School Organization and Administration 

Suggestions for Improvement 

The fifth and sixth grades would get more out of con- 
struction work if they should make a study of machines 
used in the mining industry on a working-model basis, in- 
troducing thin sheet metal, wire cloth, soft metals, and 
cement, in addition to wood. The making of foundry 
flasks and tools, and the casting of objects in soft metal, 
would be appropriate projects. The study of transporta- 
tion, involving the making of models of railroad tracks, 
switches, hoists, etc., would furnish occasions for the exer- 
cise of ingenuity. Bridge construction is also appropriate 
work. It is clearly suggested by the trestle over Salt 
Lake. 

In grades seven and eight more advanced work in metal 
as well as in wood is appropriate. It should be in part ap- 
plied art, as hammered copper or brass, and in part along 
the line of applications of mechanics. 

The supervisor of manual training and the supervisor of 
art should cooperate in making out the course of study in 
these two phases of school work. These courses should be 
closely related. The art department should cooperate in 
working out designs in manual training. It needs this mo- 
tive to keep the principle of design from being abstract, and 
in his manual work the pupil needs to have his attention 
directed toward attractiveness of form and appropriate dec- 
oration. Manual training as now conducted in Salt Lake 
City causes boys to resort to furniture catalogues for de- 
signs instead of working out their own ideas of form. They 
have no confidence in their ability to work out appropriate 
designs. Their training tends to make them mere copyists. 
It is highly important that the emphasis placed upon design 
in the course in art should have an outlet in the manual- 
training activities. 

There is little to commend in the scheme of manual train- 
ing now in vogue in the Salt Lake City schools. It should 
be radically reorganized. 



The Courses of Study 109 

12. DOMESTIC ARTS AND SCIENCE 

A commendable feature of the work seen in this subject 
was the effort to adapt the instruction to the home needs of 
the children attending the different schools. The same 
course of study was not followed in all of the schools, nor 
were the grades in which the instruction was given the same. 
The teachers of the subject seemed to be making an earnest 
effort to adapt the work to the needs of the children. This 
is a desirable feature, and should be continued. It was the 
feeling of the survey staff that much more could be done in 
this line than has so far been done. 

There are too few properly equipped centers for this work 
in the schools of the city, and enough is not made of it, and 
in one of the high schools no opportunity is provided for 
girls who wish to continue this important study. 

13. PHYSICAL TRAINING 

This is considered at some length as a part of the health 
work of the schools, and the reader is referred to Chapter 
XII for a detailed consideration of the work in this subject 
of instruction. 



/ 

/ 



CHAPTER VII 

THE INSTRUCTION AND SUPERVISION AS 
SEEN: DESIRABLE EXTENSIONS 

I. The Instruction and Supervision As Seen 

THE QUALITY OF INSTRUCTION 

ENOUGH has already been said to indicate that the 
members of the survey staff were favorably impressed 
by the teaching observed in the classrooms of the city. We 
found the work in general on a fairly high plane. The neces- 
sity of utilizing each year the services of so many young 
teachers, just out of the normal school, makes for a lower 
average level of instruction than is best for the system, but 
this tendency, so far as the common branches are concerned, 
is offset in large measure by the employment of expert 
supervisors in grammar and primary grades who supple- 
ment the weaknesses of the young teachers and, in time, 
bring them out as worthy members of the teaching force. 
The normal school sends them into the service with the 
right attitude toward the work, and this is one absolutely 
indispensable factor in their training. Thus they are pre- 
pared to accept, in the best possible spirit, the training in 
service which continues through the early years of their em- 
ployment. Without expert guidance from grade super- 
visors Salt Lake City's method of recruiting its teaching 
force would be fatal to progress ; but the weaknesses in- 
herent in the plan of recruiting the force exclusively from 
the home product, and at low salaries, is offset in such 
measure by the systematic after-training which the system 
affords that better results are secured than might reasonably 



The Instruction and Supervision as Seen iii 

be expected. Much of the work done by the more experi- 
enced teachers is superior in quahty. Some mecHocre work 
was seen, and some that would be called poor, but the 
greater part of the teaching must in fairness be classed as 
good. 

One important aid which the teachers have is the free- 
textbook system maintained by the city, and the freedom 
which the city enjoys in the selection of the books to be used. 
Fortunately, the State of Utah has had the good sense to 
exempt the city from following the uniform series of text- 
books adopted for its district schools, and the city has made 
excellent use of the exemption. The books supplied are 
both varied in character and excellent in quality. 

CLASSWORK OBSERVED 

It was not possible in the time available to observe a 
class exercise in every schoolroom of the city, but enough 
work was seen to afford a safe basis for opinion. Fully 
300 class exercises were observed by the members of the 
survey, — some in full, and all for a sufficient length of 
time to catch the method and spirit of the work. 

The attainments of the children in reading, spelling, 
writing, arithmetic, and composition, as measured by the 
standard tests employed, are seen, by reference to the tables 
and charts in Chapter VIII, to compare favorably with 
those of children of like grades in other cities where the 
same standards have been applied. In visiting classes, many 
of those in which the tests had been given received particu- 
lar attention, because it seemed desirable to know whether 
the results of the tests were such as might have been an- 
ticipated by a competent observer. It is interesting to note 
that those members of the survey who applied the observa- 
tion test to these classes, till recently the only test available, 
were not surprised to learn, after the tabulations had been 
completed, that the nineteen schools in which the standard 
tests were used had made a good showing. 



112 School Organization and Administration 



AN OBSERVED CHARACTERISTIC 

One marked characteristic of the Salt Lake City school 
system that impressed the members of the survey in their 
visits to classrooms was the cheerful, optimistic tone of the 
teachers. No burden seemed too great, no work so hard as 
to cause complaint. The fine professional attitude of the 
teaching force deserves the highest commendation. As 
might be expected this attitude is reflected in the attitude of 
the children toward the school. Repression was nowhere 
in evidence, nor was any needed. The children were free 
and natural in their movements, yet there was no disorder. 
Not a single instance of cross word or stubborn manner 
was noticed by any member of the survey staff during the 
entire three weeks of their stay in the city. Doubtless cases 
of discipline do arise. However, the records show that 
offenses calling for severity are of rare occurrence. 



PRINCIPALS AND THEIR WORK 

A principal is both an administrator and a supervisor. In 
his role as administrator he acts as the responsible head of 
his school in all matters of organization and management. 
He represents the school department in his community, and 
in proportion as he has energy and discretion and an apti- 
tude for leadership he causes his school and its work to be 
known and appreciated and loyally supported by the people 
of his community. In the Salt Lake City school system the 
principal's position is one of dignity and authority. He is 
the head of his school in supervision, as well as in adminis- 
tration. All directions to teachers given by the superintend- 
ent or by supervisors acting for him are given either through 
the principal or with his full understanding. His range of 
observation is more limited than theirs, since his work is 
confined to a single school. He needs to avail himself of 
the wider view of the supervisors who see the entire field, 



The Instruction and Supervision as Seen 113 

in order to make the work of his school harmonize in essen- 
tials with the general policy of the administration. 

There is a wide range for variation within this field, and 
each principal is expected to make definite contributions 
toward the improvement of the service. He knows that if 
he wishes to try some plan which he thinks will work better 
than the customary one he will have full liberty to make 
trial of it, providing after explanation it does not appear to 
the superintendent to be contrary to the general policy of the 
schools. Not only does the principal have liberty to try new 
things; he is definitely encouraged to seek paths leading 
away from the beaten track of routine, for in this direction 
lies growth. 

The principals' salary-schedule puts a premium upon this 
very thing by basing increase, above a certain minimum, 
upon university work. In consequence many of the princi- 
pals have taken a college degree, some at the agricultural 
college and some at the state university. They seemed to 
the survey staff to be well poised, self-respecting, and ca- 
pable.. It was the general feeling among the members that 
they had seldom if ever seen greater professional zeal on 
the part of principals in devising ways to improve their 
schools, both in matters of detail and in those larger phases 
of a school's life which affect the life of the community and 
influence its ideals. 



THE SUPERVISION OF WORK IN THE COMMON BRANCHES 

Under the present system of recruiting the teaching force, 
the good results realized in the common branches in the 
Salt Lake City schools could not be realized if the super- 
vision were not systematic and intelligent, for whatever 
strength the work manifests must in large part be due to 
the wise guidance which makes seasoned veterans out of 
raw recruits. 

The efficiency of grade supervision may be shown in sev- 



114 School Organization and Administration 

eral ways, — first, of course, in results ; second, in helpful 
professional relations which the supervisors establish in 
their contact with the teachers in the schoolrooms of the 
city ; and, third, by the suggestions and directions they give 
to the teachers by means of detailed outlines, and orally in 
the teachers' meetings. 

As shown by standard tests and verified by observation 
of regular class work, the results are good. In judging 
whether helpful relations had been established, members of 
the survey staff accompanied the grade supervisors in cer- 
tain of their visits, for the purpose of actually seeing how 
they did the part of their work which brings them into con- 
tact with teachers and children in the schoolrooms. Two 
half days were spent in this way with the supervisor of 
grammar grades, and one with the supervisor of primary 
grades. Both supervisors appear to be well equipped in per- 
sonality, education, and professional skill, and it is the 
opinion of the survey staff that they have the right point of 
view of their function in the system. This is that they are 
in the service for the purpose not simply of inspecting the 
work of others, though, of course, this is a part of their 
duty, but for the larger purpose of helping the teachers to 
teach well. To this end they make plain the meaning of the 
necessarily limited statements in the course of study, and 
are always ready to illustrate the proper method of proced- 
ure by actual teaching. This is often the surest way of 
getting any procedure understood. Any one who has had 
experience in sending out written instructions cannot fail 
to realize the utter impossibility of so wording a statement, 
involving many particulars, that all to whom it is addressed 
will interpret it in the same way. Especially is it true that 
comparatively inexperienced teachers, of whom there are 
so many in the Salt Lake City schools, need the illustration 
which the supervisor stands ready to give. 



The Instruction and Supervision as Seen 115 



PROMOTION OF PUPILS 

The system in use for promotion to the high scliools, 
depending in part, as it does, upon the records made by chil- 
dren in formal examination, makes testing an exceedingly 
important part of the supervisors' duty. In any promotion 
system involving set examinations the danger is that the 
examination will loom large in the minds of children and 
teachers, and that chief attention will be centered upon the 
more formal portions of the work. Even though examina- 
tion results count only one-third, the members of the survey 
are not in favor of this phase of Salt Lake City's promotion 
scheme. They believe in examinations, both oral and writ- 
ten, as teaching exercises, but not as tests of fitness for pro- 
motion. The inevitable tendency of such examinations is 
to narrow instruction. 

Nevertheless, since examination for promotion is a fea- 
ture of the system, it is important to note whether the ex- 
aminations which are set tend toward formality and a nar- 
row interpretation of the course of study, or whether, as 
far as may be, they have the opposite tendency. The 
samples in language and arithmetic which follow show the 
character of the examinations which the grade supervisors 
set. It will readily be admitted that they are excellent 
samples of their kind. Tiiey would be extremely useful as 
teaching exercises. If examinations are to be employed as 
elements in the promotion of pupils from grade to grade, 
those of the type used in the Salt Lake City schools are as 
free from objection as any that could be devised. 



TYPES OF EXAMINATION TESTS USED 

To show the type of examinations given by the super- 
visors, and the mental qualities they are designed to test, 
we reproduce a few typical examination papers from the 
collection supplied us while at work in Salt Lake City. 



ii6 School Organization and Administration 

I. Language. Reproduction 
A Class, Third Grade 

Thursday, P. M., January 22nd, after test paper and all necessary material 
have been furnished the pupils, read or tell, slowly, very deliberately, — in 
order that the children may be able to get the mental pictures, — ONCE only, 
the story which follows. 

Suggest three or four titles and allow each child to select his own. 

One very hot day a little boy was lying on his stomach under a big tree, 
reading a story. 

"Little boy," said his mother, "will you please go into the garden and bring 
me a head of lettuce? " 

"O, I — can't!" said the little boy, "lam too hot!" 

The little boy's father happened to be close by, weeding the flower bed, 
and when he heard this he lifted the little boy gently by the waistband, and 
dipped him into the great tub of cold water that stood ready for watering the 
plants. 

"There, my son, now you are cool enough to go and get the lettuce for your 
mother, and the next time she asks you to do something for her you may not 
feel so hot." 

Note how readily this would lend itself to reproduction 
with the picture idea in the child's mind. 

II. Geography 
B Class, Third Grade 

1. Where do the dairy farmers of Salt Lake Valley have their hay farms? 

2. Why must a dairy farm be near a community center or near a railroad 
station? 

3. Why must milk be kept very, very clean? 

4. When the milker begins his work, what does he do? Why? 

5. Just as soon as he finishes milking a cow, what does he do? Why? 

6. Why does each cow have a report card? Is her name on the card? 

7. How do they get the milk from the dairy farms to the cities? 

8. Why is all milk bottled now? 

9. Name the Utah counties that rank high in dairy products. 

10. What dair>' product is Utah turning out in larger and larger quantities 
each year? 

III. Grammar 

GROtrp I Final Examination — Eighth B Class 

I. Illustrate: (a) A phrase as subject of the sentence; (b) A clause as ob- 
ject of a preposition; (c) A coordinate clause; (d) A phrase modifjing 
a noun used as subjective complement. 



The Instruction mid Supervision as Seen 117 

2. Choose the proper word and fill in the blanks of the following sentences; 

also give reasons for your choice: 

(a) Not one of the boys (was, were) there. 

(b) The book (lay, laid) on the table yesterday. 

(c) Deal (gentle, gently) with them. 

(d) For you and (me, I) there are many opportunities. 

(e) (Has, have) either of you girls an extra pencil? 

3. Diagram the following sentence: 

At the back of Mount Tipanogas, not fifty miles away, is a glacier exhibiting 
all the characteristics of ice streams. 

4. Use each of the following words first as a noun, then as an adjective, then 
as a verb: bUnd, sound, spring. 

5. Classify (a) words, (b) sentences, (c) phrases, according to use. 

GROUP 11 

6. Write the plural form of the following words: tooth, Mary, Miss Clark, 
German, baby, journey, chief, wolf, father-in-law, hero. 

7. Give the principal parts of the following verbs: go, sit, lie, dig, set, see, 
do, eat, come, lay. 

8. Account for the case form of the capitalized pronouns in the following 
sentences: 

(a) WE girls are going on an excursion. 

(b) Did you see Mary and ME at the theater? 

(c) Neither speaker had prepared HIS speech. 

(d) I am in a higher class than SHE. 

(e) The money belongs to US four boys. 

Q. Write a sentence containing two subordinate clauses, one performing the 
office of an adjective and the other the office of an adverb. 

10. Explain and illustrate the difference in meaning between the following 
words: At and in, between and among, beside and besides, by and with, in and 
into. 

Note that children compose in answering these questions. 
They are not analyzing the sentences of others. 

IV. Arithmetic 
GROUP I Eighth A aitd B Classes 

1. Solve: 54f + 9^1 + I'sf + 8? + 13I 

2. Divide 49^ by 21 5. 

3. Multiply .045 by 40.4 and divide the product by 6.45. 

4. Simplify: f of ff. 

f of If 

5. Multiply 1,786,905! by 78|. 



ii8 School Organization and Administration 

GROUP II 

1. How many square feet in the walls, floor, and ceilinR of a room 16 feet 
6 inches long, by 12 feet 4 inches wide, by g feet 6 inches high? 

2. A farmer bought 80 sheep for $500. He sold 45 per cent, of them at $8.00 
apiece, and the remainder at $7.50 apiece. Find his per cent, of gain. 

3. At 3J-2 per cent, commission, wliat were the earnings in one week of an 
agent who sold property as follows: $6,875, %i400i $11,400, and $8,725? 

4. A steamboat makes a trip of 148.75 miles in 9.4 hours. Find the speed per 
hour. (Give the answer to the nearest hundredths.) 

5. $75.50 was paid for oats at 45 cents a bushel. Find the total weight, 
reckoning 32 pounds to a bushel. 

Note the separate grouping of problems by means of 
which a comparison may be made between a pupil's abiHty 
in fundamentals and in reasoning. 



THE QUALITY OF THE GRADE SUPERVISION 

Sets of circulars or bulletins issued by the grade super- 
visors, as interpretations of the course of study, have been 
placed at the disposal of the members of the survey. 

The outlines in third-grade geography, issued in bulletin 
form by the primary supervisor, have already been com- 
mented on as models of their kind. A grammar-grade bul- 
letin on arithmetic has been quoted in connection with the 
discussion of that subject. In a bulletin on hygiene, issued 
by the grammar-grade supervisor, an excellent way is 
pointed out to secure the observance by the pupils of hy- 
gienic rules: "Habit formation should constitute a chief 
part of the educational training in hygiene. The pupils will 
be rated on the quality of their class work and their daily 
physical habits." In another bulletin the following sound 
characterization of the use of grammar is given for the 
benefit of principals and teachers of seventh and eighth 
grades : 

"The teaching of grammar must be justified by the educational results that 
arc immediate, ratlier than those remote. These results should be: (a) clearer 
thinking, (b) increased ability to judge the quality of language, (c) increased 
power to interpret language. 



The Instruction and Supervision as Seen 119 

"It is better to select a few topics in grammar and to teach them well than 
endeavor to teach too many topics. Whenever the facts and principles being 
studied have no concrete meaning to the child, they are not serving the edu- 
cational purpose intended. Verbal memory has httle place in the teaching of 
this subject. Classifications and definitions should follow concrete knowledge 
of many individual words or expressions, and not precede this knowledge. In 
other words, they should grow out of the child's fund of information and his 
powers of comparison." 

Good points about the bulletins are : 

1. Flexibility — the supervisor realizes that conditions 
determine the remedies to be applied. 

2. Definiteness of directions. 

3. The ultimate end is never lost sight of. The various 
means suggested are always practical. They reflect super- 
visors who have studied the results of the teachers' work, 
and who possess readiness and resourcefulness in suggest- 
ing remedies for difficulties. 

4. The insistence upon thoroughness, upon student 
power, not alone a mastery of facts, as an ultimate test of 
teaching is constantly emphasized. 

5. The human element in the directions should tend to 
make the teachers sympathetic and stimulating. 

6. The relation of subject to subject is well brought 
out, indicating supervisors who see all of the subjects as 
parts of a plan to develop a single consistent purpose. 



II. Desirable Extensions 

THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 

The plan now well under way in Salt Lake City, by which 
grades seven, eight, and nine are organized departmentally 
as the junior high school, is in line with progressive prac- 
tice elsewhere. Already sixty-eight cities have such organi- 
zations, and many more are contemplating this feature. 
These organizations differ as to the grades included, whether 
two or three ; as to housing, whether in a separate building, 



I20 School Organization and Administration 

or with lower grades, or high school proper; and again as 
to the subjects included in the course of study. Some com- 
mon characteristics appear. After the sixth grade, pupils 
are allowed some choice among studies, they anticipate some 
of the work of the high school proper, and they are taught 
on the departmental plan. 

THE PLAN AS YET IMPERFECTLY DEVELOPED 

In Salt Lake City the organization calls ultimately for 
three grades, the seventh and the eighth, and, as pupils of 
the two grades below accomplish work which calls for high- 
school credits, the ninth. A good beginning has been made, 
and the plan merits full development. It seemed to the 
survey staff, however, that instead of scattering the units 
of the organization throughout the city it would be far 
better, both financially and educationally, to bring the pupils 
of junior high-school grades together in larger numbers. 
Since the schools throughout the city are now so crowded 
that rooms not intended for school use are being utilized as 
classrooms, it is evident that new buildings must be erected 
to relieve the congestion. The needed relief should be pro- 
vided by erecting four or five new buildings expressly for 
the junior high school work, leaving existing buildings for 
the use of grades one to six. This would make better grad- 
ing possible and would provide larger classes, thus reduc- 
ing the per capita cost of instruction. It would also remove 
two grades, the seventh and eighth, from all existing build- 
ings, in itself a gain of no small importance. 

The work cannot be properly developed in so many small 
and scattered centers. Not enough differentiation can be 
arranged to meet the varying needs of the children. At 
present the prevocational needs of the children of Salt Lake 
City are not sufficiently provided for. A choice of German, 
Latin, or French is open to pupils, and in one center the 
arithmetic of the eighth grade has a commercial trend ; but 
there is little provision for those non-literary pupils who, 



The Instruction and Supervision as Seen 121 

though not defective in intellect, are not sufficiently apt in 
dealing with symbols to get their education chiefly from 
books. Not only for these, but also for another group of 
boys and girls, normal in every respect but who will inevi- 
tably leave school at an early age, courses should be offered 
which give definite industrial training. The work in such 
courses should differ from that in the ordinary manual- 
training classes for boys, and classes in cooking and sewing 
for girls, in the greater variety of materials dealt with, in 
the increased time devoted to practical work, and in the 
approach to the academic work through the industrial pro- 
jects of the shop and home. Ten hours per week is not too 
much time to devote to this work. The courses should pro- 
vide real vocational experience, with materials and processes 
as extensive as the leading occupations followed in the city 
and state. Through such experience the boys and girls can 
form some notion of what they are fitted to do for a 
livelihood. 

TYPES OF COURSES NEEDED 

The junior high school scheme, when fully developed, 
should provide at least four courses at each center. One, 
strongly academic, has now been well worked out. An- 
other, tending toward the commercial, has been begun. An- 
other in practical arts for boys is needed, and still another 
in practical arts for girls. Both of these should include 
agriculture as an optional subject. It should be possible 
for a boy or girl who has taken any one of the courses to 
enter the senior high school, if circumstances are such as to 
make a longer period of schooling possible. 

As has already been said, this variety of opportunity can- 
not be offered in scattered centers. Four or five buildings, 
with ample shop and laboratory facilities, are needed. Each 
should be conveniently located to receive pupils from sev- 
eral six-grade schools. On the basis of the present enroll- 
ment, four schools, each with a capacity for 950 pupils, 
would accommodate the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades 



122 School Organization and Administration 

of the entire city. For the present, one of these would as 
now be the new high-school building. 

In the year 1914-15 there were 1,616 pupils enrolled in 
the seventli grade, 1,243 in the eighth, and 856 in the ninth. 
The falling ol'f in attendance in the eighth grade was 23 
per cent. ; in the ninth it was 47 per cent. It may be confi- 
dently expected that after the junior high school plan has 
been fully developed, with differentiated courses of study 
and in buildings of suitable plan and equipment, this heavy 
mortality at the end of the eighth grade will be greatly re- 
duced, and a fifth school would be needed. It ought to 
be the purpose of every city to carry as many pupils as pos- 
sible through a six-year elementary and some one of the 
three-year junior high-school courses. Normally these 
would be completed by the close of the fifteenth year, or at 
the end of the compulsory school period. That Salt Lake 
City fails to accomplish such a purpose now may be seen 
by an inspection of Figures 13 and 14, which show the ages 
and grades of the pupils at present in the schools. 

VOCATIONAL TRAINING 

Approximately 1,600 children leave school each year in 
various grades after the sixth, 800 boys and 800 girls. It 
is important to know what preparation they have had for 
the practical duties that await them. The exact loss by 
grades, computed from the age-grade distribution sheet, is : 

Grade VI to VII 215 

Grade VII to VIII 253 

Grade VIII to IX 552 

Grade IX to X .312 

Grade X to XI 145 

Grade XI to XII "7 

Total 1,594 

Approximately two-thirds of those leaving are from 
grades below the ninth, and eighty-four per cent, of them 



The Instruction and Supervision as Seen 123 

are from grades below the senior high school. Vocational 
preparation is seen therefore to be chiefly a problem for the 
junior high school and the grades immediately below it. 

Vocational training in any city must have reference to the 
opportunities for employment which the city affords, for it 
is safe to assume that the majority of the boys and girls now 
in the schools will find their place in the life of the local com- 
munity. We cannot know what occupation any child will 
follow, but from census reports we do know what occupa- 
tions are open to choice, not only in Salt Lake City, but also 
in the country as a whole, and what proportion of the popu- 
lation is now engaged in each occupation. 

VOCATIONS IN SALT LAKE CITY 

The vocational distribution of the entire wage-earning 
population of Salt Lake City, male and female, according 
to the census reports for 19 10, was as shown in the follow- 
ing table : 

TABLE XIV 

Occupational Statistics for Salt Lake City 
{U. S. Census Reports, igio, Vol. IV) 

Total Population, Salt Lake City, 1910 92,777 

Male Female 

I. Total population 10 years of age or over 37,9oS 35)627 

37,73oor4o.7% 1. Engaged in all occupations 30,279 7,451 

566 or 0.6% (a) Agrig. forestry and Animal husb'y . . 553 13 

(Farmers — Farm laborers 195 5 

Gardeners, nurserymen, florists ... 161 7 

Stock raisers, tenders 157 o 

904 or 0.9% (b) Extraction of minerals 903 i 

ii,564or 12.5% (c) Manf. and Mech. industries .... 10,260 1,304 

Apprentices 239 31 

Blacksmiths — Forgemen 273 

Brick and stone masons 367 

Builders and building contractors . . 586 2 

Carpenters 1,425 

Compositors — Typesetters .... 240 12 

Dressmakers — Seamstresses .... 1 546 



124 School Organizatiofi atid Administration 

Male Female 

Most important Electricians — Elec. engineers .... 448 

Over 200 in each Stationary engineers 304 

Laborers in building trades .... 1,492 20 

Machinists — Tool makers 516 

Manufacturers, Supt., — Officials . . 420 8 

Milliners — Dealers and workers . . 10 192 

Painters, vamishers, etc 494 

Plasterers 151 

Plumbers — Gas and steam fitters . . 313 

Food Industries 106 155 

Iron and steel industries 290 

Tailors and tailoresses 183 19 

4,235 or 4.6% (d) Transportation 4,038 197 

Draymen, teamsters, e.xpressmen . . 851 

Chauffeurs 65 

Steam railway conductors 208 

Over 200 in each Street railway conductors 145 

Brakemen i6t 

Locomotive engineers 323 

Locomotive firemen 191 

Motormen 131 

Laborers 667 6 



Summary : 



Water transportation .... 
Road — Street transportation . 

Railroad work 

Exp., Post. Tel. — Telephone . 
Other transportation pursuits . 



6,454 or 7% (e) Trade 

Bankers, brokers — Money lenders , 

Clerks in stores 

Commercial travelers 

Over 150 in each Deliverymen 475 

Insurance agents and officials ... 175 2 

Real estate dealers 370 8 

Retail dealers 1,630 64 

Salesmen and saleswomen .... 1,207 339 

Wholesale dealers and importers . . 1 1 1 i 

1,583 or 1.7% (f) Public Service 1,569 10 

Firemen 69 

Guards, watchmen, bookkeepers . . 120 



11 





1,039 





2,183 


6 


346 


183 


459 


8 


4,038 


197 


5,726 


728 


290 


5 


599 


274 


394 


9 



The Instniction and Supervision as Seen 125 

Male Female 

Laborers 208 2 

Marshals, sheriffs, detectives .... 41 i 

All Officials — Inspectors (City and Co.) . 85 6 

Officials — Inspectors (State, U. S.) . 112 i 

Policemen 73 

Soldiers, sailors — Marines 846 

Other pursuits 15 

3,342 or 3.6% (g) Professional Service 2,146 1,196 

Authors, editors, reporters 98 12 

Civil and mining engineers 444 

Designers, draughtsmen, inventors . . 118 15 

Over 100 in each Lawyers — Justices 273 2 

Musicians — Teachers of music . . . 174 195 

Physicians — Surgeons 188 26 

Teachers 113 614 

Nurses 9 112 

5,016 or 5.4% (h) Domestic and Personal Service . . . 2,253 2,763 

Barbers, hairdressers, manicures . . 266 75 

Bartenders 275 

Boarding and lodging-house keepers . 63 331 

Housekeepers — Stewards 15 135 

Janitors 211 59 

Launderers — L'dresses (not in laun- 
dries) 7 201 

Over 100 in each Laundry operatives 105 325 

Midwives — Untrained nurses ... 22 249 

Porters 141 

Restaurant and cafe keepers .... 106 16 

Saloon keepers 99 i 

Servants 417 1,227 

Waiters 268 81 

4,066 or 4.4% (i) Clerical occupations 2,827 1,239 

Agents, canvassers, collectors .... 366 14 

Bookkeepers — Cashiers 804 315 

Clerks (not in stores) 1,150 156 

Messenger and office boys ^'294 11 

Stenographers and typewriters ... 213 743 

MANUFACTURING CONDITIONS 

Salt Lake City 1909 1904 1899 

No. of manfg. estabUshments . . . 245 192 154 

Av. no. of wage earners 4,287 2,776 2,154 

Value of products $13,351,000 $7,544,000 $4,279,000 

Values added by manufacturing . . 6,736,000 4,029,000 2,302,000 



126 School Organization and Administration 

Wage 
Utah Employing Earners 

No. of manuf. estabs. in 749 11,785 

Total population of Utah 373,351 

Total population of Salt Lake Citj' 92,777 

Salt Lake City has 33 per cent, of establishments of State of Utah. 
Salt Lake City employs 36 per cent, of wage earners of State of Utah. 
Per cent, of total population engaged as wage earners in manufacturing estab- 
lishments, 4.6 per cent. 

From decade to decade there will doubtless be slight 
changes in the vocational distribution shown in the table, but 
the proportions are not likely to change materially in the 
next twenty years, hence boys now in the schools, if they 
remain in Salt Lake City, will be engaged in the occupations 
listed above in about the same proportion that obtained in 
19 10. If they go elsew^iere they will find vocational de- 
mands not widely different. The present distribution of 
wage earners in Salt Lake City, in the nine leading occupa- 
tions, is given in Table V. 



VOCATIONAL EDUCATION NEEDED 

It would manifestly be impossible to prepare each of the 
800 boys who leave school each year specifically for the 
particular occupation which he will follow out of the vast 
variety open to choice, even if the choice of each were known 
in advance. A general vocational training intended to lay 
a broad foundation of vocational understanding wxTiy, how- 
ever, be given to all. A still more secure foundation may 
be laid for each of the half dozen broad fields of human 
labor represented in the city, the work in each field being 
taken only by those who intend to find their specialty there. 

The boy should be permitted to try himself out in as many 
vocational fields as possible. The range of experimental 
activities should be as wide as the resources of the city will 
permit. There should be work with wood of all varieties, 
and in connection with the woodwork experiences in the use 



The Instruction mid Supervision as Seen 127 

of finishes of every sort. There should be work with metal, 
leather, clay, and textiles. There should be electric Avork, 
printing, gardening, buying, selling, banking. The list 
might be greatly extended. 

Sewing and garment making for girls already receives 
attention, but not enough time is given to the work to make 
it of high vocational value. Some specialization should be 
open to girls who will not pursue their education beyond 
the junior high school. This is true also of domestic sci- 
ence. In the good beginning thus far made in teaching 
these subjects the schools are rendering a far-reaching social 
service. Training for clerical service is well provided for 
in the present courses of study. Vocational training for 
girls should look beyond the commercial and clerical work 
which will necessarily be but temporary, and toward the 
wise management of a home in all its varied relations. 

The junior high-school organization is well adapted to 
foster the wide variety of prevocational or try-out activities 
through which only can a boy or girl be sure of making a 
wise choice of vocation. 



THE SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS 

The senior high schools, two in number, offer seven 
courses, classical, scientific, English, normal-preparatory, 
mechanics'-arts, domestic-science, and commercial. In view 
of the importance of agriculture in the Salt Lake Valley a 
good course in agriculture should be added. With this addi- 
tion the high-school opportunities furnished would be suffi- 
ciently varied to meet present needs. Provision for varia- 
tion from a single fixed course, alike for all, has been 
in vogue in high schools throughout the country for many 
years, whereas in the upper grades of elementary schools a 
more conservative policy, amounting to rigid adherence to a 
single course, has till quite recently been the universal policy. 
The Salt Lake City high schools have been of the progres- 
sive class, and they are now able, without at all disturbing 



128 School Organization attd Administration 

their organization, to receive pupils from the new junior 
high-school courses of the modern varied type and carry 
them forward along the lines of work started in the seventh 
grade. For this reason the high-school situation has not 
seemed to call for much attention from the members of the 
survey staff. 

The small percentage of pupils enrolled in the high 
schools, and the heavy mortality during the first year, as 
shown by F'igures 14 and 15, seem to indicate that the high 
schools are not making the educational opportunities they 
provide as apparent to the young people of the community 
as they should, and perhaps are not adjusting their work as 
closely as they might to the individual needs of the pupils 
who enter the schools. 



UNGRADED CLASSES 

The junior high school does not receive pupils until they 
have completed the work of six grades. The statistics of 
retardation in the Salt Lake City schools disclose the fact, 
common in the experience of all school systems, that there 
are many children in the lower grades who, though not feeble 
minded, are slow to grasp the fundamentals which, in the 
main, constitute the work of the first six grades. They 
cannot work to advantage in regular classes because they 
need more individual attention than they can get there. 
Failing of promotion term after term, they become discour- 
aged and indifferent. It is expensive to keep them in the 
regular classes because they must be taken over the same 
ground repeatedly, owing to their inability to keep the pace 
of the class. Not only is it expensive, but it is also waste- 
ful of human life and capacity. Children of this type can 
master the rudiments of education if allowed to move for- 
ward slowly but regularly. They need to be organized in 
special classes of moderate size, and to move forward at 
their own pace, without repeating. Such groups are some- 
times called auxiliary classes, sometimes ungraded classes. 



The Instruction and Supervision as Seen 129 

A few such classes have been organized in Salt Lake City. 
On a false theory of economy some of them have recently 
been discontinued. Each large school should have at least 
one such class. Unlike some of those now conducted, such 
classes should be managed with no expectation of meeting 
grade requirements of the course of study. The teacher 
should regulate the course in accordance with individual 
needs, and there should be much objective work. Practical 
arts, of a less advanced type than those in the junior high 
school, should provide motive for reading, writing, compo- 
sition, and arithmetic. Instead of reducing the number of 
ungraded classes the city should increase their number, and 
should adjust the character of the work done in them, not 
on the basis of the regular course of study, but on the basis 
of adaptation to the peculiar aptitudes of the pupils. This 
subject is considered more in detail in Chapter IX. 



CHAPTER VIII 

THE EFFICIENCY OF THE INSTRUCTION 
MEASURED 

PURPOSE OF THIS SECTION OF THE REPORT 

TO be able to state in quantitative terms just what the 
efficiency of instruction in a given school or subject 
is, is a recent innovation in school practice which is becom- 
ing of increasing importance as scales for this purpose are 
perfected. It is not enough to get results in teaching, but 
we must be able to define those results, and it should be 
emphasized that, until this can be done, we really know very 
little about the results obtained. 

It is the purpose here to report the results of a series of 
tests which were designed to measure the state of efiiciency 
of instruction in the Salt Lake City schools, in those sub- 
jects which are intended to provide the children with the 
common tools of knowledge, and which every one recog- 
nizes as the basis of all education. 

EXTENT OF THE TESTS MADE 

To this end tests were given in the subjects of reading, 
writing, spelling, composition, and arithmetic, to from 9 to 
22 per cent, of the children in the elementary schools of the 
city. For this purpose 19 of the 30 schools were selected, 
taking care to touch every type of community from the 
standpoint of population and social and economic status, 
and general school conditions as to size of school, cjuality 
of building and instruction, etc. From each of these schools 
the " B," or upper classes, were chosen for the tests. 

130 



The Efficiency of the Instruction Measured 131 

Whatever results appear are therefore fully typical of the 
schools as a whole, probably little if any different from 
what would have been the case had every child in the system 
been included in the test.^ Dealing with the upper classes 
of each grade, and at the close of the school year, the results 
represent practically the final achievements of the grades 
tested. 

The tests used were all standardized tests, and, while no 
adequate explanation of any one of them can be given here, 
it should be noted that each one had been specially designed 
for its purpose, and not only represented the best scientific 
achievement in that line at the time, but each had proved its 
value in teaching and supervision in many school systems. 

Results obtained from these tests in other cities were 
therefore serviceable, and fully trustworthy for comparative 
purposes here. 

WHAT SUCH TESTS SHOULD REVEAL 

The forces and conditions determining the results of 
teaching the subjects tested, as well as all other subjects, 
are extremely varied. The responsibility of the school lies 
in discovering, defining, and controlling those different fac- 
tors, to the end that the greatest economy in instruction shall 
obtain. Time allotment, teaching equipment, method, hy- 
gienic and aesthetic conditions of the room, etc., are all 
factors of importance in determining the efficiency of the 
instruction, but no single factor is so great as that of indi- 
vidual differences in mental ability. The school can easily 
control the time, equipment, and method factors, but it can- 
not determine original mental endowment. This only em- 
phasizes the fact that it is the function of the school to 
organize and operate in terms of child nature, justifying its 

^ In bulletin No. 2, of the Boston Department of Educational Investigation 
and Measurement (Nov., 1914), Dr. Ballou found that a study of 1,000 cases 
(arithmetic tests) showed almost identically the same median as that obtained 
in a study of 20,000 cases. 



132 School Organization and Administration 

plans for supervision, promotion, grading, methods of in- 
struction, etc., always in terms of the degree to which they 
aid in the adjustment of the school to the individual needs 
of the children. 

Such tests as were employed and are here described are 
well adapted to finding out how fully the schools are meet- 
ing this important responsibility. A bad classification of 
children is a greater handicap than can be offset by the 
greatest excellence in methods, supervision, or equipment. 

HOW THE TESTS V/ERE CONDUCTED 

With the exception of writing and composition the tests 
were conducted by members of the survey staff, all of whom 
were engaged at this work for from three to five full days. 
The tests were given under as nearly normal schoolroom 
conditions as was possible. The papers w^ere scored by 
teachers and principals, under the careful instruction of a 
member of the staff, no teacher scoring her own papers 
where more than mere counting or checking was involved. 
The results of the scoring and recording were gone over 
with sufficient care to guarantee that no unusual errors crept 
into the final results. A few papers, and papers for a very 
few classes, had to be discarded because instructions were 
not carefully followed. It is believed that the results as 
shown below are fully trustworthy as evidence of the effi- 
ciency of instruction in these subjects, as they were being 
handled at the time the school survey was made. 

I. The Test in Spelling 

The subject of spelling is begun in the second grade, and 
continued through the eighth. The average amount of time 
given to the subject is approximately 100 minutes per week 
for all grades save the third, which devotes 150 minutes per 
week to this subject. (See Table XII, page yy.) The 
general suggestions and plans outlined in the printed course 
of study for spelling are excellent. The work is carefully 



The Efficiency of the Instruction Measured 133 

correlated with other work in Enghsh, and the spelHng text 
is supplemented by lists of words made up by the super- 
visors and teachers. It should be said at the outset that the 
amount of time devoted to this subject is at least 25 per 
cent, too high, 50 per cent, in case of grade three, and that 
a fair interpretation of the results, of this test must bear this 
fact in mind. 

The test, which was given to the " B " class in each of 
the grades three to eight inclusive, in nineteen schools, was 
that devised by Dr. Leonard P. Ayres, which he used in the 
Springfield survey,^ and which he has later embodied in a 
complete spelling scale. ^ The test is composed of the fol- 
lowing sixty words: 



GRADE 3 


GRADE 4 


GRADE 5 


I. fill 


I. forty 


I. several 


2. point 


2. rate 


2. leaving 


3. state 


3. children 


3. publish 


4. ready 


4. prison 


4. o'clock 


5. almost 


5. title 


5. running 


6. high 


6. getting 


6. known 


7. event 


7. need 


7. secure 


8. done 


8. throw 


8. wait 


9. pass 


9. feel 


9. manner 


10. Tuesday 


10. speak 


10. flight 


GRADE 6 


GRADE 7 


GR.\DE 8 


I. decide 


I. district 


I. petrified 


2. general 


2. consideration 


2. tariff 


3. manner 


3. athletics 


3. emergency 


4. too 


4. distinguish 


4. corporation 


5. automobile 


5. evidence 


5. convenience 


6. victim 


6. conference 


6. receipt 


7. hospital 


7. amendment 


7. cordially 


8. neither 


8. liquor 


8. discussion 


9. toward 


g. experience 


9. appreciate 


10. business 


10. receive 


ID. decision 



^ The Public Schools of Springfield, Illinois. An educational survey, Divi- 
sion of Education, Russell Sage Foundation, Bulletin E 137. 1913. 

* A Measuring Scale for Ability in Spelling. Leonard P. Ayres, Division of 
Education, Russell Sage Foundation, 1915. 



134 



School Organization and Administration 



Each word was selected from the i,ooo words found, 
after a lengthy investigation, to be the i,ooo most com- 
monly used words in writing, and placed in groups by 
grades, on the basis of an extended test of each word in 
the schools of 84 eastern cities. Each word appears in the 
grade in which it was spelled correctly on an average by 
70 per cent, of the children. We may therefore accept 70 
per cent, as the standard which each grade in Salt Lake City 
should attain, if the instruction in this subject is as good 
as the average in a large number of cities in the United 
States. 

The list of words was pronounced to the children by the 
regular classroom teacher, in the presence of a member of 
the survey staff, ordinary class procedure obtaining in mat- 
ters of writing, pronunciation, explanation of words of 
more than one meaning, etc. The papers were collected, im- 
mediately scored by the teacher, and turned over to the mem- 
ber of the survey in charge. 



^^ o 

•OUJ U_ 



z 





(— 








x: 


CO 




r- 


:) 


<t 


fV 


CO 



< 


LU 

"3 


>- 

<. 

_1 








a 

z 




or 




<J} 



^ CO "^ i= 
< Qi z z 



o ^ 

T- t- ce: or 

^ CD lij lU 

o 2: t- — 

< <^ i 




4 44.4444,3grg4,5?g'444 f4.; 



HIBMXST 09£K»Ae 



Lowltr Atimct 



Fig. 16. Results of the Spelling Test, by Schools 



The Efficiency of the Instruction Measured 135 



THE RESULTS OF THE TEST 

The results of this test appear in the accompanying tables 
and diagrams, which present the facts by schools, by grades, 
for the city as a whole, and in comparison with results ob- 
tained in three other cities where this test has been used 
recently. 

In Table XV the average score for each grade in each 
school, graded on the scale of 100 per cent, is presented in 
detail, and, at the top, combined for the city as a whole by 
grades. The important features of this table are shown 
graphically in Figure 16, in which the upper margin of the 
shaded surface indicates the highest average score made by 
TABLE XV. SPELLING 

Distribution of Average Scores by Schools, by Grades, and for the 
City as a Whole 

(Ayres Test) 











Total 
Ave. 


Grade 


School 


















VIII 


VII 


VI 


V 


IV 


III 


TOTAL FOR CITY 


S6.0 


82.2 


87.1 


86.8 


87.6 


78.8 


89.9 


Emerson School . . . 




81. 1 


80.2 


95-7 


82.S 


81.4 


62.4 


84.1 


Forest School . . 








83-9 


79-5 


78.8 


82.1 


94-5 


77.0 


94-5 


Grant School . . 








86.1 




89.1 


88.8 


92.S 


79-5 


90.7 


Hamilton School . 








89-5 




9S-2 


85.8 


92.6 


80.9 


94.4 


Jackson School 








77.2 


78.2 


82.3 


90.4 


94.6 


64-5 


92.5 


Jefferson School . 








89.0 


86.5 


88.7 


90.0 


92.0 


85.3 


92.0 


Lafayette School . 








84-5 


84.6 


82.4 


90-3 


82.8 


75-9 


90.6 


Lincoln School 








89.0 




93-3 


92.5 


91. 1 


87.8 


86.5 


Lowell School 








92.4 


86.1 


94.4 


98.3 


96.4 


98.7 


91.2 


Onequa School 








84.4 


73-1 


82.3 


83-9 


85-9 


85-9 


95-9 


Oquirrh School 








89.1 




87.8 


96.9 


93-0 


85.1 


85.7 


Poplar Grove Schoo 








87.S 


89-5 


90.0 


86.9 


76.8 


87.4 


93-9 


Riverside School . 








84.8 


76.8 


89.7 


84.1 


77.1 


81.0 


98.7 


Sumner School 








83-3 


76.1 


80.6 


73.8 


90.0 


76.6 


95-5 


Training School . 








68.9 




71.0 


65.2 


83.1 


S8.8 


66.4 


Wasatch School . 








93 -o 


97-9 


91-3 


98.4 


96.9 


78.7 


97.2 


Washington School 








82.9 




91-3 


89-7 


79-3 


73-9 


75-8 


Webster School . 








84.4 


76.8 


86.0 


86.9 


86.S 


79-9 


87.3 


Whittier School . 








91.8 


89.0 


95-4 


97.1 


89. 7 


85.8 


94.4 



136 School Organization and Administration 

any grade in each of the schools, the lower margin the low- 
est average, the central line the complete school average, 
and the straight line the average for the city. 

Certain facts stand out here which may be studied in de- 
tail in Table XV. First of all, the difference in the effi- 
ciency of different grades in the same school. From the 
figures above and below the margins, it may be seen that the 
fourth grade in the Emerson School made only slightly 
above 60 per cent, whereas grade seven made above 95 per 
cent. The Jackson School is a similar extreme case, which 
contrasts with the record of the Jefferson School. Either 
the average child in the fourth grade of the Emerson, Jack- 
son, and Training schools cannot be promoted in spelling 
this year, or, if so, then the basis for promotion in grade 
four must be much lower than that used in promoting chil- 
dren in the grades of these same schools which are repre- 
sented by the upper margin of the diagram. 

The second suggestion oft'ered by the diagram is the dif- 
ference in school averages, varying as they do, from slightly 
under 70 per cent, to 93 per cent. One must ask if that 
difference represents the difference in the basis of promo- 
tion in spelling in the different schools, since these children 
are to come up for promotion in a few weeks. Similarly, a 
comparison of schools based on the best average score made 
by any grade, or on the lowest average score made by any 
grade, or a comparison of any given school with the city 
average, shows this same wide diversity of standards which 
exists between different schools, and. in several cases, be- 
tween different grades in the same school. 

Another fact which comes out in this diagram is that 
grade four most often ranks lowest, and that grade three 
most often ranks highest. It will be recalled that grade 
three devotes 50 per cent, more time to spelling than do the 
other grades. Tliis, though, is too high a price to pay for 
this superior record. 



The Efficiency of the Instruction Measured 137 



RESULTS OF THE TEST BY INDIVIDUALS 

Such diversities as these suggest the importance of study- 
ing the children individually, rather than by schools or 
grade groups. This is done in Table XVI, which shows 
the percentage of children from each grade, and for the 
city as a whole, who attained each of the possible scores. 



TABLE XVI 

Showing the Percentage of Children of Each Grade Who Attained 
Each of the Possible Scores in Spelling 

(Ayres Test) 





Score 




Grade 






100 


90 


80 


70 


60 


50 


40 


30 


20 


10 





VIII 


31.6 


20.6 


15-3 


10.4 


15-8 


2.4 


3-1 


0.8 








VII 


39-8 


24-5 


193 


7-1 


4-5 


2.7 


1.2 


0.5 


0.2 


0.2 






VI 


39-6 


24.8 


17.6 


7.2 


5-3 


2.7 


1.6 


0.9 




0-3 






V 


43-1 


26.2 


12.9 


7.2 


5-6 


2.7 


1-7 


0.6 










IV 


23.8 


21.0 


18.7 


14.2 


11.4 


4-3 


3-5 


2-3 


0.8 








Ill 


53-2 


20.2 


12.4 


6.7 


3-7 


1-3 


1.2 


0.7 


0.3 


0-3 






TOTAL FOR CITY 


40.0 


23.1 


16.1 


8.8 


6.2 


2.7 


1.8 


1.0 


0.2 


0.1 







These facts are shown graphically in Figure 17, in which 
the children of each grade may be studied individually, and 
in comparison with those of other grades, and with those 
for the city as a whole. 

Looking first at the distribution for the entire city, includ- 
ing the records of nearly 4,000 children — over one-fifth of 
all the children in the elementary schools — it will be seen 
that 40 per cent., or four of every ten children tested, spelled 
all the ten words correctly; that over 20 per cent., or two 
of every ten, spelled nine words correctly, and that all the 
other scores, except zero, are represented in the diagram 



138 School Organizatian and Administration 

by a rapidly decreasing percentage of the children. The 
distributions for grades five, six, and seven are much similar 
to this, while those for grades eight, four, and three are 




GRADE ML 

SZ9 CHILDHEIt 



Seoul: mtov>yf>»> — to 




6RADE;5IL 

5Sl CHILDREN 



ENTIRE CITY 

39St CHILOREH 




M W K TO W it '• TO ZO 



GRADEIT 

TOS. CMII,DKeN 



1 30 ro 70 WW 40 JO 




GRADE!? 

■7/0 CHILDHEM 



10- 



KOJDIO 70 M jo 4a» 20 



GRADEH 

fS-Z CHILOKCM 



wo X W 10 V K to io TO 10 



SPELLING TEST. 



Fig. 17. Showing for the City as a Whole, and by Grades, the Ter- 

CENTAGE OF CHILDREN ATTAINING EaCH OF THE POSSIBLE SCORES 



different. More than half the children in grade three, and 
less than a fourtli of the children in grade four, attained 
perfect scores. Similar comparisons may be made by refer- 
ence to the median score, which is indicated for each sec- 



The Efficiency of the Instruction Measured 139 

tion of the diagram. The median or middle score for all 
the 3,988 children tested is 91 per cent., which means that 
one-half of the group, or 1,994 children, attained a score 
above 91, while the same number fell below 91. As was 
shown by Figure 16, grade four ranks lowest with a median 
of 82, and grade three highest with a median of 96. 

UNEVEN ABILITY SHOWN 

It is clear from this showing that the test was too easy 
for two-fifths of the children in the Salt Lake City schools. 
How many more words of equal difficulty these children 
might have spelled can only be conjectured. It is enough 
to say that two-fifths of the children of these grades have 
long since been ready for promotion, according to the 
standard of this test. 

There is another feature of this diagram, however, that 
must not be overlooked, and that is the fact that in each 
grade there are a few children who fail to spell more than 
half of the ten words correctly. For the city as a whole 
this group amounts to nearly six per cent., or approximately 
250 of the children tested. While it is true that Salt Lake 
City is not unlike other cities in this respect, yet this question 
should be met squarely. While the details for individual 
classes cannot be shown here, the same condition which ob- 
tains with respect to whole grades in the city obtains also in 
single classrooms. 

Pedagogically this makes a teaching situation which no 
teacher can hope to meet adequately. With such extremes 
of abilities in a class, some children may dawdle their time 
away, while others are being overworked. It should be re- 
membered that dawdling is not mere resting, or waiting. 
On the contrary, it is a constructive part of the child's train- 
ing, which is developing for him slovenly, half-hearted 
habits of work which do not make use of his full capacity 
for achievement. With the child who ranks far below his 
class average the case is different. It is the unusual teacher 



I40 School Organization and Administration 

who does not finally count him a hopeless case, and permit 
him to drift, or, to save her own teaching reputation, drive 
him along by the most unpedagogical methods until the 
process finally eliminates him. 



COMPARISON WITH THREE OTHER CITIES 

A comparison of the showing in Salt Lake City with that 
made in three other cities in which this test has been recently 
used seemed desirable, and is presented in Table XVII. 



TABLE XVII 

Spelling Test — Salt Lake City Compared with Other Cities 

(Ayres Test) 





Grade 




City 




Ave. 


II 


III 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


Springfield, 111 


70.0 


65.0 


70.0 


72.0 


68.0 


73-0 


75-0 


70.0 


Butte, Mont.i 


86.2 


81.8 


78:7 


84-5 


7S-0 


76.2 


89.4 


80.3 


Oakland, Cal.^ 


60.4 


66.7 


75-9 


84.7 


80.2 


79-7 


76..1 


76.5 


SALT LAKE CITY . . 




89.9 


78.8 


87.6 


86.8 


87.1 


82.2 


86.0 



' Includes only B classes. 

5 Sears, J. B., Spelling Efficiency in the Oakland Sclwols, Board of Education Bulletin, Oak- 
land, 1915. The test in Oakland was given at the befiinning of the year, and includes results from 
both A and B classes. 

Note. Salt Lake City should rank slightly higher than Oakland, since the test included only 
the B section of the grade and was given five months later in the school year. 

From this it will be seen that the Salt Lake City schools 
rank well above those of the other cities in all grades except 
the eighth, and that, for the city as a whole, they stand 6 
per cent, above all the others. 

Discounting this showing liberally because it represents 
the final product of the grades, the midyear classes not being 
included, it can still be said that Salt Lake City ranks 
high, probably highest for the city as a whole, and for at 
least three of the grades. But again reference must be 
made to the fact that in Springfield the amount of time given 



The Efficiency of the Instruction Measured 141 

to spelling ranges from o to 40 minutes per day, i. e., from 
o to 200 minutes per week ; that in Oakland the range is from 
10 to 200 minutes per week, with an average of slightly less 
than 100 minutes ; while the range in Salt Lake City is from 
30 to 300 minutes per week, with an average of 1 15 minutes. 
While the question of time cannot be settled absolutely for 
all classes and schools alike, the best investigations of this 
subject do not seem to warrant the recommendation of more 
than 75 minutes per week as a maximum amount of time for 
the subject of spelling. While Salt Lake City has made a 
decidedly high showing, the large time-cost which it places 
upon the schools must be taken into account. 

Nor must this excellent showing in general obscure the 
situation pointed out above. It is true that this brings to 
light one of the most difficult problems in school organiza- 
tion. It is true that much the same situation exists in other 
cities. In a highly complex system the individual child is 
too apt to be lost in the midst of machinery. The cure is 
individual promotion, at reasonably frequent intervals, on 
the basis of single subjects, instead of grade or groups of 
subjects. There are many difficulties attending the admin- 
istration of such a remedy, but with adequate supervision 
it can be accomplished. 

2. The Test in Composition 

Some form of language work is taught in all grades. 
Story telling and dramatization in the early years anticipate 
the work in written composition, which begins in grade 
three in the form of letter writing and story reproduction. 
The outline for this work in the printed course of study is 
most suggestive, leaving wide freedom to the teacher, but 
freedom in the midst of rich suggestions as to what ends to 
seek and what motives to provide. Especially is it notice- 
able and commendable that formal grammar is presented 
only as a means of explaining and clarifying oral or written 
expression. 



142 School Organization and Administration 

The amount of time devoted to the subject varies widely 
in every grade, but on the average increases gradually from 
75 minutes per week for grades one and two, to 255 minutes 
per week for grade eight. (See Table XII, page yy.) 
Twenty-five per cent, more time is given to spelling in grade 
two than is given to language work, and in grade three 
fifty per cent, more time, while an equal amount is given 
the two subjects in grade four. This is obviously so un- 
reasonable a distribution of time between these two subjects 
that it should only be necessary to discover that such a dis- 
crepancy exists in order to have it changed. 



NATURE AND METHOD OF THE COMPOSITION TEST 

The test, which is explained in the following paragraphs 
from a circular placed in the hands of the teachers, was 
given in grades four to eight inclusive, in the nineteen 
schools selected for the testing work. 

Composition Test 

1. Each teacher is requested to ask her children to write a composition 
for her on the following theme: 

"Suppose that you have twenty dollars, which you have been given to spend. 
You have five friends, and you decide to spend it in such a manner as will give 
the most pleasure to each. Tell what you would do or buy for each friend. 
The amount spent for each friend need not be the same, but the total for the 
five must be twenty dollars." 

2. The composition should be written with pen and ink, and on the regular 
writing paper. 

3. After the children are ready for writing, read the subject to them, give 
them a minute or two to ask any questions, and, as soon as you are sure that 
the children understand what they are to do, start them at writing. 

4. When the children have finished, collect the papers, fasten those for each 
class together with a clip, and send to the office of the school principal. 

•No teacher marked her own papers, hence the personal 
element probably entered very slightly into the scoring. 



The Efficiency of the Instruction Measured 143 

which was done by the use of the Hillegas scale for measur- 
ing the quahty of Enghsh composition.^ 

In all there were 3,043 compositions written, representing 
a sample of slightly more than 16 per cent, of the children 
in the elementary schools of the city. 



THE RESULTS OF THE TEST 

The results of this test are shown briefly in the following 
tables and diagram. 

TABLE XVIII 

Showing Distribution of Composition Scores or Ratings, by Grades 
(Hillegas Scale) 



Grade 


Ratings and Number in Each Grade Making 
Each Rating ^ 


II 


d 

ri 







I 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


S 


VIII . 
VII . 
VI 

V 

IV 


I 

I 

21 

3 


3 

17 

38 

100 

136 


20 

51 
89 

159 


44 

84 

120 

140 

157 


81 

165 
123 

133 
159 


87 

95 

106 

69 
51 


92 

S8 
67 
53 
43 


82 
70 

31 
21 

15 


29 

13 

8 

I 


45 

13 

4 


483 

597 
587 
653 
723 


5-4 
4.4 
3.8 
3-1 
2.9 



' The actual values are not o, i, 2 3, 4, etc., but o, 183, 260, 369, 474, 585, 67s, 772, 838, and 
937. Full explanation of how these values were derived, and of the nature and purpose of the scale, 
are given by its author in the Teachers College Record for September, 191 2. 

In Table XVIII a complete distribution of scores attained 
by each of the grades is shown, together with the median 
score attained by each grade. From this table it may be 
seen that the degree of efficiency rises gradually from grade 



* Hillegas, Milo B., .<4 Scale for the Measurement of Quality in English Com- 
position by Young People. Published by Teachers College, Columbia Univer- 
sity, 191 2. 



144 School Organization and Administration 



SCORES 



01 23456 7?'9 



MEOiart 5C0RES: 

PER CENT. OF PUPILS H: Y^ 

20 



GRADE mrr 



GRADE 511 



GRADE 21 



GRADE If 




GRADE!? 



score:: 12345 ST^S 

Fig. 1 8. Results of the Composition Test 

This shows the percentage of pupils in each grade who attained each of the pos- 
sible scores, judged by the Hillegus Scale. 



The Efficiency of the Instruction Measured 145 

four to grade eight. That is, from this test it appears that 
the average child in the Salt Lake City schools, during the 
course of four years^ training in English composition, may 
be expected to gain in efficiency the equivalent of 23/2 points 
on this scale, or at the rate of .6 point per year. According 
to the Butte school survey * the progress of a child in that 
city was at the rate of .45 point on the scale per year. Most 
of the points in this table are brought out more effectively in 
Figure 18, which shows for each grade the percentage of 
the children who attained each of the possible scores. 

The achievement for the median child in grade four, and 
that for the median child of grade eight, are indicated by the 
long vertical lines drawn through the entire diagram. Be- 
tween these, at fairly regular intervals, with one exception, 
appear the short vertical lines representing the medians of 
the three intervening grades. This seems to suggest that 
the composition work is equally well done in all these five 
grades. Closer examination of the exception referred to 
shows that the rate of progress for grade four has been 
substantially higher than that for the other grades. It will 
be recalled that grade four ranked lowest in spelling. If 
that was because this grade was working harder on compo- 
sition, then it is the writer's opinion that the schools can 
well afford to permit the spelling scores of all grades to drop 
from 5 to 10 per cent, more, especially since more than 25 
per cent, more time is given to spelling than is desirable. 
Particularly in the language work of the early grades could 
this time be used to far better advantage. 

CHILDREN POORLY CLASSIFIED FOR LANGUAGE WORK 

By this diagram attention is also called to the wide variety 
of abilities found in each grade. This was found to be char- 
acteristic also of individual classes, and presents the same 

' Report of the Survey of the School System of Butte, Montana. Reprinted by 
The World Book Company, 1916. 



146 School Organization and Administration 

teaching difficulties as were pointed out above in connection 
with spelHng. How to assign a lesson, or how to discuss 
sentence or paragraph formation, or the details of letter 
writing, with a class containing children as widely apart in 
ability as are those represented by the outer ends of the dif- 
ferent sections of this diagram, would be difficult to state. 
In fact it cannot be done without losing time for some 
membiers of the class. 

The diagram shows that there are nearly 8 per cent., almost 
60 children of the fourth grade, whose composition scored 
higher than that written by the average child in grade eight. 
It is not merely unfair to these 60 children, but unfair to the 
city's future citizenship, to say nothing of the money cost 
involved, that these 60 children, who probably represent the 
real future leadership of the city, should not be promoted to 
where full, not half opportunity, will be given them in this 
subject. 

SAMPLES OF AVERAGE COMPOSITION 

In order that the reader may judge for himself of the 
quality of work the schools are doing in composition, the 
children's papers from the different schools have been looked 
over and those papers from each grade which received the 
score nearest the median (approximately the average) for 
the grade have been sorted out. From these the following 
compositions have been selected as typical illustrations, not 
of the best or the poorest, but of the average compositions 
from each grade tested. They are presented here exactly as 
written, spelled, and punctuated in the original, except that 
proper names have been omitted. 

On the formal side there are plenty of errors in these 
papers, in spelling, punctuation, sentence formation, etc., 
and one or two seem rather formal and dry. In most of 
them, however, there is evidence of some play of the imagi- 
nation, and fairly free expression. Most of the vocabularies 
seem adequate, and in such details these samples seem to 



The Efficiency of the Instruction Measured 147 

indicate that the composition work is fairly well taught. It 
must be remembered that these are but average composi- 
tions, and not compositions selected because of their special 
merit. 

No. I. Grade 4B, Score 2.60 (Written by a Girl, Age ii Years, 
9 Months) 

On Christmas my uncle came on a visit. He gave me twenty dollars to 
spent. I planed what I could do to make some one happy. Wliile I was think- 
ing I thought of some poor people. 

Which had five children. So that I could see what they needed most. I 
went and played with them. After I saw what they needed I went home. And 
with some of my friends I went up town. And bought five pairs of shoes for 
eleven dollars, five dresses for six dollars, two loaves of bread for twenty cents, 
and five pairs of stockings one dollar and ten cents five gloves for one dollar 
and seventy cents. So not I was the only one happy but they were also happy 
and glad. 

No. 2. Grade sB, Score 3.69 (Written by a Girl, Age ii Years, 

7 Months) 

The other day as I was playing in the yard, I spied something in the grass 
which looked like a penny. But when I came near it was much larger and 
heavier. 

The next day I called five of my friends in, M — , D — , B — , A — , and H — . 
I told them to get ready, and we would go to Lagoon. 

At last we were ready and now we are on our way. The train stops and we 
get of ready to give the rest of our ticket to the door tender. I have spent two 
dollars already, but now I am going take them on the chutes and next the cenick 
railway. We must not forget the boats and the little train and merry-go-round. 

After that comes the lunch, for we did not bring any. 

After that we must all play some kind of a game, and win a little poodle dog. 
Next the doll game which all of us will play for. The fishing game is the game 
that you play for jewelry. I bought a vase which cost six dollars, and that 
was the prize for the one who got the most peanuts after they were hiden. We 
have ($5.40) five dollars and forty cents left for which will by ($.40) worth of 
nuts and the rest will be for carfare home. 

No . 3. Grade 6 B, Score 3.69 (Written by a Boy, Age 12 Years, 

9 Months) 

I have friends who live in the country. Their names are P — C — , C — 
C , F— C , R— C , and M— .C . They had never visited the 



148 School Organization and Administration 

city One summer I was out there. I allways piled with questions about the 
city. One day I asked them how they would like to go back with me and see 
the city. They were so delighted that they could not keep still. In P — 's de- 
h'ghtment he ran into the cow which politely lifted in the air and set him on top 
of the hay stack. The next day we started for the city about noon and we 
reached it. The minute we were off the train they began pointing to sky scraper 
and crying excitedly. Oh isn't it a tall one. F— said he sposed it reached to 
heaven. While C — was looking at one of the tall buildings he ran into a man. 
We went into a resteront a had a good dinner which cost us two dollars apiece. 
After the dinner we went to the show which was one dollar. M — wanted to 
know what made the trolley cars go. We went for a ride, we rode about five 
miles. It cost me one dollar for the ride. When we got ready to go home we 
got on the cars and found out that I couldn't find my pocket book. We walked 
all the way home. We got home I found the pocket book in my hat R — had 
put it there. I gave the four dollars for their home. They said they hadent a 
better time. 

No. 4. Grade 7B, Score 4.74 (Written by a Boy, Age 14 Years, 

3 Months) 

One sunny morning in May my five cousins who where on their way to see 
the fair at Frisco stopped on their way and came to see me. My father gave me 
twenty dollars to intertain them. I was busy thinking of the best way to do it. 
I finally decided to go to the Bingham Copper Mines. This was satisfactory to 
all and taking along a lunch we started off. 

When we got there it was noon and everybody was hungry so we opened up 
the lunch and ate until there was not a crumb left. Next we hired a guide to 
show us through the mines and what a sight we seen. There were walls of dirt 
seemingly covered with the yellow mettle. Our guid showed us where the ele- 
vators were on which they sent the copper to the top. Next he showed us the 
donkeys which hauled the little dump cart to the elevators. After taking us 
trough all the mines he showed us where the minors Uved. 

Here our journey ended after each buying a souvenir we departed for home 
each one satisfied with the way of spending twenty dollars. 

No. 5. Grade 8B, Score 5.85 (Written by a Boy. Age ?) 

DEAR J—. 

Two days ago uncle gave me twenty dollars, to get Christmas presents with. 
I was on my way down town, to get them, when I saw two ragged little boys. 
I stopped and said, to them, "Well Johnny what are you going to get for 
Christmas." 

" I aint going to get nothing this Christmas, for mamma hasn't got any money. 
Where do you live, "Across the street in that wooden house," answered the boy. 

You take this five dollars over to your mamma and then hurry back and I 
will take you up town. So I took them up town, and got them some warm 



The Efficiency of the Instruction Measured 149 

clothes and then took them to a show. So I spent fifteen dollars on three of 
them. There was Mother and Father left so I got father a shaving set which 
cost three dollars and a half and I got Mother some Handkerchiefs for a dollar 
and a half which took all my money. Merry Christmas. 

Your old friend. 



H- 



SALT LAKE CITY's COMPOSITION WORK 



But little data can be offered for comparison, but sucb as 
are available are presented in Table XIX. From this table 
it is seen that in every grade Salt Lake City ranks well 



TABLE XIX 

Comparing Salt Lake City's Median Composition Scores with Those 
Attained in Other States 





Median Score 


Grade 


Salt Lake 
City 


Butte, 
Mont.i 


Maryland and 
N. Y. Cityi* 


Delaware 
Co., Ohio 


Delaware 
City' 


VIII. . . . 
VII ... . 
VI .... 
V .... 
IV .... 


54 
4.4 
3-8 
31 
2.9 


4.11 

3-75 
340 
2.87 
2.34 


5-75to7-o 
5-iS 


3-94 


5-27 



> The Butte School Survey, p. 74- 

2 F. J. Kelly, Teachers' Marks, Their Variability and Standardization, Col. Univ. Pubs., 1914. 

• Report of the Ohio State School Survey, 1914. 

above Butte, above the eighth-grade rural schools of Dela- 
ware Co., Ohio, and above the eighth-grade children of 
Delaware City, Ohio, but below the classes in Maryland and 
New York City. 



CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 

It should be said, then, in conclusion : 

I. That while the schools rank fairly well as compared 
in Table XIX, yet the fact that some classes in New York 



150 School Organization atid Administration 

City have made higher scores indicates that there is yet 
room for improvement. There were individual classes in 
Salt Lake City which ranked as high as the New York City 
classes, which shows that higher standards than are shown 
by the table have already been attained by some schools in 
the city. 

2. That the fourth grade which ranked low in spelling 
is doing superior work in composition, and that otherwise 
the progress has been about equal in the other grades, which 
indicates that there is in general a common standard for pro- 
motion in English work throughout the city. 

3. That there is ample evidence that classes are not well 
graded, when so large a number of fourth-grade children 
are doing work equal to that of the average eighth-grade 
pupils, and when nearly an equal number of eighth-grade 
pupils rank below the average fourth-grade pupil. 

4. From the compositions written there is ample evidence 
that the excellent aims for English work, as set forth in the 
printed course of study, are being achieved, and that many 
of the common errors of teaching the formal and technical 
aspects of English work are being successfully avoided. 

5. It is recommended that a portion of the time now 
devoted to formal spelling drill be given over, in the early 
grades, to the broader work in English, and that by the use 
of ungraded rooms, smaller classes, and more elastic meth- 
ods of promotion, the very bright and the very dull pupils 
be given more adequate attention than is either possible or 
economical under the present classification. 



3. The Writing Test 
writing in the school curriculum 

Writing is taught in all grades, beginning early with free- 
arm work at the blackboard, gradually taking up the pencil, 
and in the third grade the pen. During the first two years 



The Efficiency of the Instruction Measured 151 

an average of 50 minutes per week, and through the other 
grades an average of 75 minutes per week, is given to the 
subject (see Table XII, page yy), which is shghtly less 
than has recently been found to be the average for 66 
American cities.^ The aim in teaching writing appears to 
be that of legibility rather than mere beauty, and the in- 
structions in the printed course of study lay appropriate 
emphasis upon the hygienic aspect of the teaching of the 
subject. 

HOW THE WRITING WAS MEASURED 

The test was given to the same classes and schools as were 
tested for spelling, including about 20 per cent, of the chil- 
dren in the elementary schools of the city. For this test 
each child was provided with a blank sheet of unruled writ- 
ing paper, at the top of which were printed the following 
brief instructions and paragraph, as shown here : 

Write the Following as Well as You Can at Your Usual Speed. Do 
Not Write Slowly, and Do Not Hurry, But Write Just as You 
Would a Lesson: 

After this the sqixirrels used to come in every day, and when she put com 
in her hand and held it very still, they would eat out of it. Finally they would 
get into her hand, until one day she gently closed it over them so that Frisky 
and Titbit were fairly caught. Oh, how their hearts beat! But the good fairy 
only spoke gently to them, and soon opened her hand and let them go again. 

These were given to the children by their teachers just 
as a class exercise, and when finished the papers for each 
class were turned over to the principal, who forwarded them 
to the principal of another school across the city, whose 
teachers scored the papers by use of the Thorndike scale for 
measuring handwriting.^ 

* Freeman, Frank N., in the Fourteenth Year Book of the National Society 
for the Study of Education, Part I. Chicago University Press, 1915. 

2 Thorndike, Fdward L., A Scale for Measuring the Handwriting of Chil- 
dren in Grades 5 to 8. Published by Teachers College, Columbia University, 
New York. For full explanation of how the scale was derived, see Teachers 
College Record, March, 1910. 



r52 School Organization and Administration 

RESULTS BY SCHOOLS AND BY GRADES 

The results of this test are shown in detail by schools and 
by grades in the following tables and diagrams. The scor- 
ing is done, according to the scale, on the basis of 4 to 18, 
instead of from o to 100. The reason for this is immaterial, 



TABLE XX 

Distribution of Average Scores in Penmanship by Schools and by 

Grades 



Grade 



III 



IV 



VI 



VII 



VIII 



FOR THE CITY . 

Emerson School . . 

Forest School . . . 

Grant School . . . 
Hamilton School 

Jackson School . . . 

Jefferson School . . 
Lafayette School 

Lincoln School . . . 

Lowell School . . . 

Onequa School . . . 

Oquirrh School . . 
Poplar Grove School 

Riverside School . . 

Sumner School . . . 

Training School . . 

Wasatch School . . 
Washington School 

Webster School . . . 

Whittier School . . 



9.3 
9.6 

9-3 

8.2 

11.9 

10.7 



10.5 
9.0 
8.6 

IO-5 

8.7 



94 
10.2 

7-1 



8.9 
7.6 
9.1 



10.7 

95 
10.4 
10. 1 

lO.I 

10.7 
9-S 
"•3 
9.2 
10.6 
11.6 
10.7 

9-5 
12.7 
13.8 

9.0 
12.7 

9-7 
II. I 

II. 7 



10.9 

12.5 
10.2 
10.9 

"5 
9.9 

"•3 
10.6 

9.0 
II. 7 
10.9 
12.2 

9.8 

9.8 
12.4 

9.8 
13-4 

95 
10.7 
11.4 



11.2 
10.9 
9.9 
10.9 
12.9 
10.5 

"•5 
10.3 
II. 
11.8 

9.9 
133 
"■3 
II. 
12.2 

9.6 

"•3 

10.7 
12.8 
12.0 



12.1 

2.4 
1.9 
0.4 

2-5 

1.4 

1-3 
2.2 
1.2 

4- 

2.2 

2.1 

1.6 

2. 

2.7 

1.6 

2.4 

1.2 

2.8 
2.8 



13.1 

"•3 
13.2 



13- 

11.6 

14.7 

14.6 
13s 

12.4 
12.2 
13-9 
12.5 
12.3 

11.6 
147 



but should be understood in order to interpret the following 
tables. Remembering that 4 means practically o, and that 
18 means approximately 100, the reader will readily under- 
stand Table XX, which presents the average scores by 
schools and by grades, and then combines these for the city 
as a whole. A careful study of this table shows that, judged 



The Efficiency of the Instruction Measured 153 

by grade averages, no one school ranks especially low or es- 
pecially high, though the Sumner record is consistently 
above the average for the city. In other words, the differ- 
ences between schools are nowhere striking, and the gradual 
rise of the average score from 9.3 in grade three, to 13. i in 
grade eight, shows evidence of uniformity in teaching stand- 
ards throughout the city. Since there is little uniformity 
with respect to the amount of time assigned to this subject 
in the different schools, it is of interest to state that the 
school which makes the lowest standing in the test is de- 
voting nearly one-third less than the average amount of 
time to the subject. A pleasant and profitable diversion for 
each principal would be the figuring out of the actual time- 
cost of his school's achievement per unit attained on the 
scale. 

VARIABILITY AMONG INDIVIDUALS IN THE SAME GRADE 

Averages are important, but do not tell the complete 
story, and the reader is referred to Table XXI, which shows 
the entire distribution of the scores attained by the children 
of each grade, the number of samples included, and the rank 
of the median sample. These facts are brought out clearly 
in Figure 19, which shows the same wide variation from the 
average, so apparent in the spelling and language results. 
The two vertical dotted lines inclose the records of all the 
children who scored between 8 and 17, thus showing the ex- 
tensive overlapping between grades widely apart. 

Since the instruction in writing is an individual rather 
than a group procedure, classification of children on the 
basis of this subject is not at all important. But teachers 
will not need to study this diagram long to discover that 
there are quite a number of third-grade children in the 
schools who even now are ready for the eighth-grade writ- 
ing classes ; or, vice versa, that there are many children now 
in the eighth grade who write no better than the better 
writers in grade three. Assuming that all have had approx- 



154 School Organization and Administration 



TABLE XXI 
The Distribution of Scores on 3,685 Samples of Penmanship by Grades 



Score 



o 

I 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

II 

12 

13 

14 

IS 

16 

17 

18 

No. of Samples . . . 

Median Score for Grade 



(Jradcs; Number Making Score 



III 



3 

4 

21 

55 
85 

196 
46 

102 
44 
39 
II 

4 
4 



616 



IV 



5 
30 
63 

17s 
37 

152 
60 

lOI 

38 
12 

9 
4 



687 



3 
59 

147 
23 

191 

65 
98 

41 

15 
4 
I 



646 



VI 



3 
3 
26 
117 
38 
53 
92 

87 
52 
20 
10 



602 



VII 



70 

12 

163 

91 
189 

68 

31 
24 



662 



VIII 



28 
4 
97 
81 
84 
50 
35 
61 

ID 



472 



9.2 



10.7 



"•3 



12.8 



imately similar training, as far as they have gone, we may 
reasonably conchule that these differences are largely due to 
differences in the native abilities of individual children. 

How^ever true this may be, the results of the test empha- 
size the importance of making provision for these differ- 
ences by further individualizing the instruction, and by pro- 
viding special treatment for the few who do not understand 
and do not improve under ordinary methods. This is as 
economical as it is wise from the children's standpoint. 



The Efficiency of the Instruction Measured 



155 




20 

to 
5 



GRADE IZ" 

WEOrAN - 10.7 



ii 



.jMMMt:^ 




I 

Fig. 



2 3 4 J 6 7 g- '5 W \l 12 13 lA ]6 16 



19. Showing the Percentage of Children Who Atta: 
Each of the Possible Scores 

(Thorndike Scale) 



17 If 

NED 



156 School Organization and Administration 

Still further, if third, fourth, and fifth-grade children can 
now write as well or better than is expected of the average 
eighth-grade pupil, then it is entirely wrong to have such 
children spending 75 minutes per week on this subject. 
Such children should be excused from formal work in writ- 
ing, with the understanding that so long as their written 
work shows a certain cjuality this extra time may be used on 
other studies. Such methods of saving time are commend- 
able because they stimulate those children to do their best 
who might otherwise merely drift, for the reason that it is 
no trouble for them to keep ahead of their classes. 



COMPARISON WITH OTHER CITIES 

To compare the results of this test in Salt Lake City 
with those achieved elsewhere, comparable data from 
several sources have been brought together in Table 
XXII. 

Here the median, which differs very slightly from the 
average, has been used, and it will be seen that the schools 
of Salt Lake City rank high in two respects. First, with 
the exception of a few cases in the seven school systems 
tested by Dr. Stone, no schools cited rank as high ; and sec- 
ond, because the progress from grade to grade is much 
more even in the Salt Lake City schools than in most of the 
other cases. In time it will be possible to standardize the 
matter of progress from grade to grade. Until then it is 
fair to assume that a reasonably even rate of progress is 
more nearly normal than is an uneven rate. 

HOW WELL THE AVERAGE CHILD CAN WRITE 

As in the case of the compositions, there is presented 
here, in Figure 20, a sample specimen of the writing from 
the papers in each grade which received a mark approxi- 
mately that of the grade median. Unfortunately, to repro- 



The Efficiency of the Instruction Measured 157 

TABLE XXII 

Showing the Comparative Standing of the Salt Lake City Schools in 
Penmanship, as Judged by the Median Score for Each Grade 

(Thorndike Scale) 



City 


Grade, and Median Score 


II 


III 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


Butte,! 

Connersville, Ind.^ . . . 
Southington, Conn.* . . 

Seven School Systems^ 

SALT LAKE CITY 


8.2 


8.0 
10.3 

9.2 


8.8 

lO.O 

10.7 


8.9 
10.3 

11.1 


II.6 
II. 7 

11.3 


II. 2 
11. 7 

lO.O 

10.3 
II. I 
10.6 

"•3 
12.7 
13.0 
13.0 
12.2 


12. 1 

II.O 

10.3 

11. 2 

II.O 

II. 7 
11.6 

13-7 
14.0 
12.8 



» BtUte School Survey, Chapter IV. 

2 Wilson, Writing of School Children; in Elem. Sch. Tr., June, igii (1,200 children), 
s Witham, All the Elements of Handwriting Measured; Educl. Admin, and Supv., May, iQiS- 
• Stone, quoted by Thorndike. Investigation covers seven school systems and about 3,000 
children. Teachers College Record, March, 1910. 



duce them on the printed page it was necessary to reduce 
the writing one-half in size, which detracts from its 
legibility. 

Selection on the basis of the median means that there 
are as many children in these grades in Salt Lake City who 
can write better than the specimens shown in Figure 20 as 
there are who cannot write so well. 

It can be said that these samples fairly represent the kind 
of waiting which is now being done by the average children 
of each grade in the city. The average business man, before 
grumbling about the writing taught in the schools, will do 
well to place his ow^n writing by the side of either of the 
last two of these specimens before arguing that the children 
of the public schools cannot write. It is true that some of 



158 School Organization and Administration 

GRADE TTT 
GRADE TV 

GRADE X 
GRADE :2L 




GRADE VTT 



GRADE 3Zni 

Fig. 20. Samples Representing the Median Achievement in Writing 
IN Each Grade 

(Reduced ^ in size) , 

the writing was done with a cramped hand, and that it is 
somewhat childish lookinj^, but it must be added that it is 
easily legible, and that legibility is the final test which the 
world puts upon writing. 



The Efficiency of the Instruction Measured 159 



NEEDED CHANGES IN INSTRUCTION 

In conclusion, we must say that the writing work in the 
schools of this city is well up to the standard ; that in the 
light of present practice this work is being accomplished 
in a reasonable amount of time ; and that the basis for pro- 
motion in the different schools appears to be equal, but that 
more careful individualization of instruction for the lower 
five to ten per cent, of each grade, and the temporary reliev- 
ing from formal training of those who are several points 
ahead of their grades, are lines along which the schools 
may look for even greater progress. 



4, The Test in Reading 

reading in the course of study 

Almost every classroom visited by the members of the 
survey staff showed evidence that the point of view, the aim 
and purpose, and the general method for teaching reading, 
so clearly set forth in the printed course of study, are being 
effectively carried out. The time allotment, which varies 
from 50 to more than goo minutes per week between classes 
in the city (see Table XII, page yy), with an average of 
from 200 to 375 minutes per week in the different grades 
— and the constant attention to home as well as school 
reading, which one finds in every classroom — give evidence 
that the schools of the city have not underestimated the im- 
portance of this subject, nor the fact that teaching children 
how to read is but incidental in teaching them to read. 
Speed, getting the meaning, remembering the language 
used — that is, developing vocabulary — and that clear ex- 
pression which is evidence of appreciation, all are ends to 
be sought in teaching reading. 



i6o School Organization and Administration 

ENGLISH. NORMAL READING 

TEST NO. I. SPEED TEST 
(Copyrighted by S. A. Courtis, 19 14) 

Bessie's (Adventures, Experiences, Story) 



SCORE 

Number of 
Words .... 



BESSIE'S ADVENTURES 

No. of 
Words 
Before the frightened little girl could decide what to do, the dog sat up 
on his hind legs and began to beg. He gave another impatient little "Bow!" 32 
but this time his bark did not seem so sharp and terrifying to Bessie, and 47 
her fears began to disappear. "Why, he's really a cute little doggie," she 60 
thought, and sitting up, she timidly offered him her bowl. The dog needed 73 
no second invitation, but eagerly lapped the milk until every drop was gone. 86 



Bessie set the empty bowl down upon the doorstep and patted the little 
dog's head. He in turn was equally friendly, wagging his tail and trying to 
lick her hand. In a few minutes more the two were the best of friends, 
racing about the garden in a wild game of tag. Sometimes it was Bessie, 
laughing and screaming, who was chasing the dog this way and that in and 
out among the bushes of the garden ; sometimes it was the dog, barking and 
jumping, who was chasing Bessie. More than once dog and girl were so 
much in each other's way that both fell down, rolling over and over on the 
soft grass. Not for a long time had Bessie had such a pleasant playmate. 

They were on the front lawn now, resting a minute after a particularly 
wild romp. Suddenly, through the pickets of the fence, the dog spied a cat 
crossing the street outside. Immediately he dashed after her, squeezing 
between the pickets, and running down the street at top speed. "Here, 
doggie, doggie," the little girl cried, and ran after her playfellow, only to be 
stopped by the fence. From between the pickets, she could see both the cat 
and the dog rapidly disappearing down the street. Hot tears of disap- 
pointment welled from her eyes. She hurried to the gate and shook it; it 
was securely latched. Could she open it? Many times before had she 
tried, but without success. Little girls grow, however, and standing on the 
lower part of the gate, and stretching to her utmost, she was just able to 
press her little fingers against the latch. Click, and the gate swung open. 
Bessie was free to hurry down the street. The cat and dog had disap- 
peared around the corner of the next block. 

Name Grade 



99 
"3 
128 
142 
156 
170 

183 
198 
212 

22s 

239 
249 
261 

275 
289 
300 
314 
325 
337 
353 
366 

379 
386 



The Efficiency of the Instruction Measured i6i 



ENGLISH. NORMAL READING 
TEST NO. 2. MEMORY TEST 



SCORE 

Time 

No. Read . . . 
No. Right . . . 



Bessie's (Experiences, Adventures, Story,) Part B 

Before the (terrified, frightened, poor) little girl could (decide, think, 
know) what to do, the dog sat up on his hind legs and began to (bark, tease, 
beg). He gave another impatient little ("Bow!", bark, whine) but this time 
his bark did not seem so (loud, sharp, harsh) and terrifying to Bessie, and 
her (fears, terror, distress) began to disappear. "Why, he's really a (nice, 
cute, dear) little doggie," she thought, and sitting up, she (cautiously, 
timidly, boldly) offered him her bowl. The dog (wanted, asked, needed) 
no second invitation, but (eagerly, quickly, rapidly) lapped the milk until 
every drop was (swallowed, eaten, gone). 

Bessie set the empty bowl down upon the (grass, doorstep, ground) and 
patted the little dog's (head, back, neck). He in turn was (very, also, 
equally) friendly, wagging his tail and trying to (paw, kiss, lick) her hand. 
In a few minutes more the two were the best of (comrades, friends, play- 
mates) racing about the (grounds, lawn, garden) in a wild game of tag. 
Sometimes it was Bessie, laughing and (screaming, dancing, skipping) who 
was chasing the dog this way and that in and out among the (trees, bushes, 
benches) of the garden; sometimes it was the dog, barking and (squeahng, 
jumping, biting) who was chasing Bessie. More than once dog and girl 
were so much in each other's way that (they, both, each) fell down, rolling 
over and over on the (soft, green, cool) grass. Not for a long time had 
Bessie had such a pleasant (game, frolic, playmate). 

They were on the (front, side, back) lawn now, resting a minute after 
a particularly wild (race, game, romp). Suddenly, through the pickets of 
the fence, the dog (noticed, saw, spied) a cat crossing the street outside. 
Immediately he (ran, dashed, chased) after her, squeezing between the 
pickets, and running down the street at (top, high, great) speed. "Here, 
doggie, doggie," the httle girl cried, and ran after her (friend, playfellow, 
companion), only to be stopped by the fence. From between the (pickets, 
posts, palings) she could see both the cat and the dog (gradually, rapidly, 
slowly) disappearing down the street. Hot tears of (anger, grief, disappoint- 
ment) welled from her eyes. She (hurried, ran, went) to the gate and 
shook it; it was (safely, firmly, securely) latched. Could she open it ? Many 
times (before, yesterday, halfheartedly) she had tried, but without success. 
Little girls grow, however, and (resting, standing, stepping) on the lower 
part of the gate, and (reaching, stretching, pushing) to her utmost, she was 
just able to (press, push, touch) her little fingers against the latch. Click, 
and the gate (came, was, swung) open. Bessie was (free, able, quick) to 
hurry down the street. The cat and dog had disappeared around the comer 
of the next (street, block, square). 



3 
4 
S 
6 

7 
9 

lO 



13 
15 
i6 

17 
i8 

20 



23 

24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 

3° 

32 

34 
35 
36 
37 
38 
39 
41 

43 



i62 School Organization and Administration 



HOW THE READING WAS TESTED 

To provide a test by which we may be able to make a 
quantitative statement of the degree of efficiency attained by 
a given child or class in all these features, is in large part 
the work of the future. A simple test of speed and of ac- 
curacy of memory for words used has been devised, and this 
was applied in thirteen schools. 

The test, which is printed on pages i6o and i6i, and 
which is known as the Courtis test, consists of a simple 
prose story which the children were asked to read silently, 
with as great speed and with as great care as possible. They 
were told that they would be permitted to read a certain 
length of time, after which they would be tested to see what 
they knew of the part they had read. Exactly one minute 
was given, at the end of which each child drew a ring around 
the last word he had read. By use of the figures on the 
margin the number of words read in one minute (the child's 
speed) was quickly ascertained and recorded in the square 
at the upper left-hand corner of what was called Test No. i. 

In Test No. 2 no time limit was enforced. In this test 
the same story was used, but instead of the subject being 
"Bessie's Adventures," we have "Bessie's (Experiences, 
Adventures, Story)." This same idea is carried out 
thoughout the body of the story, and the test, which is a 
test of memory for words used, consists in checking the one 
of these three words (three words always appear in italics 
inclosed in parentheses) which the pupil remembers as the 
word he read in Test No. i. These puzzles, or points, as 
tliey were termed in the explanation to the children, are 
numbered on the margin, as were the words in Test No. i. 
When the child had checked the words down as far as he 
had read the story in Test No, i , he drew a line around the 
last word, and, with assistance, recorded in the proper place 
the number of points he had read. The papers were then 
taken by the teacher, who verified the count made by the 



The Efficiency of the Instruction Measured 163 

children and assembled the scores for her class on a record 
sheet designed for that purpose. 

While the children were reading Test No. i, they did not 
know what sort of test was to follow. The two pages were 
printed together on one sheet, but in such a manner that 
when reading one the other was upside down. They only 
knew that they would be tested on what they had read. This 
would naturally have the effect of retarding their natural 
normal speed in reading, and the results of Test No. i are 
therefore more nearly comparable with the tentative stand- 
ard which the author of the test has defined for " careful 
reading." This combination of the two tests seemed more 
nearly to meet the needs of the situation, in view of the fact 
that two members of the survey staff were to devote some 
time to hearing reading recitations, to a study of reading 
texts and courses of study, and to methods and devices in 
use. 

RESULTS OF THE TEST 

The results of these tests are shown in the following 
tables and diagrams, and the reader may find it interesting 
to try his own rate of reading the selection presented above, 
in comparison with the results here shown for i ,624 children 
in thirteen schools, from grades five to eight inclusive. 

Table XXIII shows the median number of words read in 
one minute by the children of each grade and school tested. 
The range between classes is from 148 to 287 words in 
grade eight, from 178 to 293 in grade seven, from 173 to 
246 in grade six, and from 159 to 239 in grade five. The 
differences between schools as a whole are not specially 
marked. Whether a foreign language in the home increases 
the difficulties of learning to read English is perhaps a fair 
question. Some schools have no children from such homes, 
while others have a high percentage of such. Other factors, 
such as a large percentage of children from homes with no 
facilities for stimulating intellectual ideals, etc., probably 



164 School Organization and Administration 

tend to make slight differences between community or 
school records in a reading test, for very many children learn 
more reading at home than they learn at school. 



TABLE XXIII 

Showing the Number of Words Read per Minute by the Median Child 
IN Each Class Tested 

(Courtis Test) 



School 



Forest . 

Grant . 

Hamilton 

Lafayette 

Lincoln 

Lowell 

Onequa 

Oquirrh 

Riverside 

Sumner 

Training 

Wasatch 

Whittier 



VIII VII 



2x3 



199 

210 
190 
190 
199 
148 
217 
287 
239 



Grade 



230 
219 

225 
230 
219 

199 
213 
226 
219 
178 

215 
207 



VI 



206 
223 
219 
222 
213 
220 

173 
210 
206 
199 

205 
246 
239 



224 
214 

159 
179 

IS9 
203 

239 
203 
214 

159 
202 
167 
190 



VARIATION BETWEEN INDIVIDUALS 

The variation between individuals, however, is extreme, 
as shown by Table XXIV, which presents a complete dis- 
tribution of the individual scores, by grades. This table also 
shows the median score for each grade, and the tentative 
standard which Mr. Courtis, the author of the tests, has 
established. 

Speed in reading would to some extent depend upon qual- 
ity of vision. If, as is shown in Chapter XI of this report, 
15 per cent, of the children have defective vision, we could 



The Efficiency of the Instruction Measured 165 



^ 6 



e^ 









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04 






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su-ino3 



UBipaj^ 



s|idnj 
JO wquinfvj 



Pi 



O Ov 



o 



O 0\ f^ M 
O 1-1 M c> 

CN CJ (N M 



10 00 <~» O 

(N M <N 10 

PO •* ■* •* 



O fO 0» lO 



CN O •* 10 



>0 <N 00 CO 



0\ Ov vO 10 



>>>> 



bi 



Ol o 

"J- 

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2-9 






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S6 
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NO r- 

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00 On 
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Oquirrh 

Training 

Wasatch 



i66 School Organization and Administration 

expect the extreme cases from that group to produce some 
low scores. As an illustration of the wide difference in 
ability to read rapidly, which was found to exist between 
children in the same class, the records from four rooms are 
shown in Table XXV. 

Knowing what we do as to the reaction time of children, 
it is not surprising to find these differences. It is important, 
however, that they should be clearly set forth here for the 
reason that these very differences are the basis of important 
problems in method, promotion and grading, amount of 
reading to assign, etc. Referring to this table again, let us 
ask what the upper ten children do while the lower ten are 
reading aloud in class. This is concretely what is meant 
by the statement that these differences constitute impor- 
tant teaching and organization problems. Just as it 
is good method for a teacher to demonstrate good read- 
ing to her class, so it is good to relieve the brighter 
children of the necessity of droning over a passage in 
the lesson while some extremely poor reader is strug- 
gling through it word by word. If these ten children are 
equally good in expression and in getting the meaning out 
of what they read, they should recite reading in some higher 
grade, for they certainly do not have to study where they 
are. 

Reference to Table XXIV, with these points in mind, and 
a study of Figure 21 will make it plain that, so far as speed 
is concerned, one could not judge in which grade any single 
child's score might appear. It will be seen that there are 
only seven children in grade five whose scores are below 
the lowest score in grade eight, and there are no scores in 
grade eight which are above the best five in grade five, and 
by the diagram it appears that all children, irrespective of 
grade, average somewhere near 200 words per minute as 
their rate for rather careful reading. 

As compared with the Courtis standard (see Table 
XXIV) all grades rank high. The surprise is that grade 
eight ranks between grades five and six. For comparative 



The Efficiency of the Instruction Measured 167 




4MMMM;r^:i :4M:r4:!:^!4;^:i 




purposes Figure 22 is introduced, which indicates the rate 
at which these passages have been read by three other 
groups of children. The showing which the Salt Lake City 
schools have made stands well above these records, with the 
exception of three points at which the small group of 175 
children surpassed them. This would seem to indicate that 
Salt Lake City ranks well in point of speed in reading. 



1 68 School Organization and Administration 

WORDS PER MIN. 



300 
















^^ 


^, 


^' 


200 


^.^^^^- — 




Z^^^^^^^T^. 


--.-r.-'----"'' 


..„„^.^-sr.r.r'.' 




100 















175 CHILDREN (AFTtR COURTIS) 

SALT LAKE CITY. 1624 CHILORtN 

AFTER COURTIS, 103 CLA53 MEDIANS 

AFTERCOURTIS, 1060 CHILDREN 

Fig. 22. Rate of READrNG in Salt Lake City Compared with Tests Made 
IN Other Cities 



THE MEMORY TEST 

As explained above, the second test was a check on mem- 
ory of what had been read. In this test the same wide 
variety of resuks were found to appear, and are shown in 
Table XXVI, both with the median for each grade and the 
per cent, of the points which were correctly checked. In 
the per cent, correct the eighth grade stands somewhat 
above the others, but the seventh grade falls below the sixth, 
none averaging far from three-fourths correct. In Figure 
23 the relation of the amount remembered to the amount 
read in one minute is clearly shown. By the solid line one 
sees the number of points read, and by the dotted line the 
number correctly checked. The scale at the bottom shows 



The Efficiency of the Instruction Measured 169 

the number of points, and the scale on the left indicates the 
number of children attaining these scores. The medians 
are marked by vertical lines, solid for the number read, and 
dotted for the number right. It is regretted that there are 



TABLE XXVI 

Showing the Distribution of Points Read and the Number which were 
Remembered, with the Median, and the Per Cent. Correct 

(Courtis Test) 







Number of 


Points 










Points 








1^ 


S ^ 


Grade 




















U <u 









5 


10 


15 


20 


25 


30 


35 


40 


'- '^ 






4 


9 


14 


19 


24 


29 


34 


39 


ovr 


^CA) 


<u 
PhU 


VIII 


Read 




2 


14 


67 


121 


67 


29 


13 


12 


22.7 






Right 




5 


49 


122 


7« 


35 


II 


4 


2 


18.0 


79-3 


VII 


Read 




I 


14 


66 


145 


94 


59 


22 


II 


23-9 






Right 


I 


13 


5« 


152 


104 


41 


15 


3 




17.4 


72.8 


VI 


Read 




3 


23 


86 


135 


77 


20 


20 


31 


22.7 






Right 


3 


19 


85 


146 


94 


32 


18 


I 




17-5 


77.1 


V 


Read 


2 


5 


32 


112 


126 


57 


32 


12 


3 


20.8 






Right 


7 


57 


lOI 


133 


60 


16 


2 


5 




15-5 


74.0 



no available data with which to compare these facts. They 
may stand, however, as a valuable basis for later tests by 
teachers and supervisors who wish to measure progress 
from time to time in this feature of reading. 



THE PROBLEM THE SCHOOLS MUST MEET 

The main suggestions that grow out of these tests of 
reading are that, as in the other subjects, the real genius 
in the schools is not being instructed under the best of con- 
ditions. These children should be so classified that they 
wall need to work up to their full capacity. On the other 
hand, the extremely slow pupils shown in these tests should 



170 School Organization and Administration 

be receiving special instruction which cannot be given eco- 
nomically in the ordinary classroom and with the regular 
class. Less emphasis needs to be placed upon school grades, 
and more upon proper classification of the individual child. 
Along with the excellent standing which the city's schools 



GRADE :2ni 




Fig. 23. Relation of Speed Test to Memory Test in Reading 

are showing in these tests they must bend their energies to 
this problem of refining the teaching adjustments to meet 
more adequately the needs of individual children. So far 
as these tests go they show this to be an immediate and a 
pressing problem in instruction and internal organization 
which the schools are now facing. 



The Efficiency of the Instruction Measured 171 

5. The Tests in Arithmetic 

arithmetic in the course of study 

Arithmetic is taught in all grades, and the course out- 
lined seems in the main in keeping with the best thought 
on this subject. The degree of importance which attaches 
to this subject in the schools of the city is well indicated by 
the amount of time which is devoted to it. The amount 
varies greatly between schools, and between grades. Some 
classes are spending as much as 500 minutes per week on 



TABLE XXVII 

Amount and Distribution of Time in Arithmetic 



Grade 


I 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


Per Cent, of Total Time 


Proposed Maximum 
Standard 


75 


100 


125 


150 


150 


ISO 


ISO 


170 


10.7 


SALT LAKE CITY 


50 


100 


225 


225 


250 


240 


250 


290 


14.3 



the subject, while others are spending but 20 or 30 minutes. 
The approximate average ranges from 50 minutes per week 
in grade one to 290 minutes for grade eight. (See Table 
XII, page yy.) Rather extensive investigation of this 
matter has led to the recommendation of the following 
grade distribution of time for arithmetic, with which that 
for Salt Lake City may be compared.^ 

From this it will be seen that arithmetic is receiving more 
than its full share of attention in the city, approximately 
14.3 per cent, of the school time being devoted to the sub- 
ject, whereas this investigation supports argument for but 

* The distribution recommended is based on the median recitation-time 
expenditure in 630 cities. W. A. Jessup, The Fourteenth Year Book of the Na- 
tional Society for the Study of Education, Ch. VIII (1915). 



172 School Organization attd Administration 

10.7 per cent. It should be added here that another investi- 
gation has shown that, of twenty-six cities devoting from 
7 to 22 per cent, of their school time to arithmetic, those de- 
voting more than the median amount for these twenty-six 
cities ranked very Httle higher in the reasoning test reported 
below than did the cities using less than that amount.^ 

In interpreting the following results in the tests this time 
cost must not be overlooked, even if there are numerous 
cities whose time allotment for arithmetic is equally high. 

The tests in arithmetic covered the four fundamental 
operations, and their application in a series of problems in- 
volving a test of the children's ability to reason. The first 
are known as the Courtis Standard Tests,- and the second 
as the Stone Reasoning Tests.^ 

HOW THE ARITHMETIC WAS TESTED 

The following instructions, followed by typical examples, 
illustrate the nature of the tests in addition, subtraction, 
multiplication, and division. 

There were more examples in each of the four sets than 
any child would be likely to work in the time allowed, which 
was 8 minutes each for addition and division, 4 minutes 
for subtraction, and 6 minutes for multiplication. The ex- 
amples were all printed, and the necessary oral explanations 
were made by the member of the survey in charge, who 
timed the classes and instructed teachers how to score the 
results. 

The same schools and classes as were used in the other 
tests were used for all the arithmetic tests. 

The reasoning test was presented to the child in the form 
printed on page 175. On the left are the values assigned to 
the problems, each of which has been carefully standardized 

' Stone, C. W., Arithmetical Ahilities and Some Factors Determining Them. 
Teachers College Publications, New York, 1908. 

* Courtis, S. A., Standard Tests. 82 Eliot St., Detroit, Mich., 1914. 

' Stone, C. W., Arithmetical Abilities and Some Factors Determining Them. 



The Efficiency of the Instruction Measured 173 

for testing purposes, and the values assigned represent the 
relative difficulties of the different problems. 

No credit was given for any work either incompletely or 
incorrectly done. 



RESULTS OF TESTS IN THE FUNDAMENTALS 

The tables and diagrams given on the pages which follow 
will show the results of the tests. Those for the fundamen- 
tals are represented first, and then those for the reasoning 
tests. 

Table XXVIII shows the full distribution of scores, by 
grades, for each of the subjects, and with the median score 
attained in each case. It will be seen that the same wide 
range of abilities as was shown in the other tests appears 
here also, and in each grade. The nature and extent of this 
distribution is clearly brought out in Figure 24, which shows 
on each section the median score attained by each grade. 

It appears that the median child in the seventh grade is 
not as far ahead of the median child in the sixth, as is the 
sixth-grade child ahead of the fifth, or the eighth ahead of 
the seventh. In the matter of accuracy, which will be dis- 
cussed later, this difference does not appear. 

From this test, the average or median child in the Salt 
Lake City schools may be expected to work examples in the 
fundamentals, such as those used, at the following rates 
(using 8 minutes in addition, 4 minutes in subtraction, 6 
minutes in multiplication, and 8 minutes in division) : 

If in grade 5, he can add 4.1 examples, subtract 5.2, mul- 
tiply 4.3, and divide 3.0. 

If in grade 6. he can add 6.4 examples, subtract 7.8, mul- 
tiply 5.3, and divide 5.5. 

If in grade 7, he can add 6.9 examples, subtract 8.8, mul- 
tiply 7.1, and divide y.y. 

If in grade 8, he can add 8.8 examples, subtract 9.8, mul- 
tiply 8.3, and divide 9.5. 



174 School Organization and Administration 



ARITHMETIC. FOUR FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS 

(The following are selected examples of the problems given the children to solve in the assigned 
time. Four printed pages, one for each of the fundamental operations, were used. The problems 
have been so arranged that each presents the same degree of difficulty.) 

You will be given eight minutes to find the answers to as many of these addition examples as 
possible. Write the answers on this paper directly underneath the examples. You are not expected 
to be able to do them all. You will be marked for both speed and accuracy, but it is more important 
to have your answers right than to try a great many examples. 

037 397 136 486 384 176 277 837 



370 


935 


340 


76s 


477 


783 


445 


882 


7S6 


473 


988 


524 


881 


697 


682 


959 


837 


983 


386 


140 


266 


200 


594 


603 


934 


31S 


353 


81 3 


679 


366 


481 


Il8 


no 


661 


904 


466 


241 


851 


778 


781 


8S4 


794 


547 


355 


796 


535 


849 


756 


965 


177 


192 


834 


850 


323 


157 


222 


344 


U4 


439 


567 


733 


229 


953 


525 



You will be given four minutes to find the answers to as many of these subtraction examples as 
possible. Write the answers on this paper directly underneath the examples. You are not expected 
to be able to do them all. You will be marked for both speed and accuracy, but it is more impor- 
tant to have your answers right than to try a great many examples. 

115364741 6729812s 92057352 113380936 

80195261 29346861 42689037 42556840 

You will be given six minutes to work as many of these multiplication examples as possible. 
You are not expected to be able to do them all. Do your work directly on this paper; use no other. 
You will be marked for both speed and accuracy, but it is more imporUnt to have your answers right 
than to try a great many examples. 

8246 3597 5730 2648 9537 

29 73 _^ 46 02 

You will be given eight minutes to work as many of these division examples as possible. You 
are not expected to be able to do them all. Do your work directly on this paper; use no other. 
You will be marked for both speed and accuracy, but it is more important to have your answers 
right than to try a great many examples. 



25)6775 



04)85352 37)0090 86)80066 



(On the following page is a reduced reproduction of the sheet given each pupil for the reasoning 
test. The use of scratch paper was permitted, and the results were entered after each problem on 
this sheet.) 



The Efficiency of the Instruction Measured 175 



ARITHMETIC. STONE REASONING TESTS. 

School Grade Name of Pupi! 



Problem 
Value 



Problems 



1.2 
1.6 



Solve as many of the following problems as you have time for; 
work them in order as numbered: 

If you buy 2 tablets at 7 cents each and a book for 65 cents, how 
much change should you receive from a two-dollar bill? 

John sold 4 Saturday Evening Posts at s cents each. He kept 
J^ the money and with the other J^ he bought Sunday papers at 
2 cents each. How many did he buy? 

If James had 4 times as much money as George, he would have 
$16. How much money has George? 

How many pencils can you buy for 50 cents at the rate of 2 for 
5 cents? 

The uniforms for a baseball nine cost $2.50 each. The shoes cost 
$2 a pair. What was the total cost of uniforms and shoes for the 
nine? 

In the schools of a certain city there are 2,200 pupils; H are in 
the primary grades, M in the grammar grades, Js in the High School 
and the rest in the night school. How many pupils are there in 
the night school? 

If il^i tons of coal cost $21, what will sJ^ tons cost? 

A newsdealer bought some magazines for $1. He sold them for 
1 1. 20, gaining 5 cents on each magazine. How many magazines were 
there? 

A girl spent J^ of her money for car fare, and three times as much 
for clothes. Half of what she had left was 80 cents. How much 
money did she have at first? 

Two girls receive $2.10 for making buttonholes. One makes 42, 
the other 28. How shall they divide the money? 

Mr. Brown paid \i of the cost of a building; Mr. Johnson paid 
J^ the cost. Mr. Johnson received $500 more annual rent than Mr. 
Brown. How much did each receive? 

A freight train left Albany for New York at 6 o'clock. An express 
left on the same track at 8 o'clock. It went at the rate of 40 miles 
an hour. At what time of day will it overtake the freight train 
if the freight train stops after it has gone 56 miles? 



Total Score Made by Pupil: 



Directions to Teacher: 

1. Cross off the problem value for each problem not correctly solved or not attempted by 
the pupil named, and then add up the remainder. This will give the score earned by this pupil. 



176 School Organization and Administration 



TABLE XXVIII 

Showing the Distribution of Children with Respect to the Number 
OF Examples Finished 

(Courtis Standard Test) 
ADDITION (Time 8 minutes) 



Orad« 




Number of Examples Worked 


'■? 


1 2 3 4 s 6 7 8 g 10 II 12 13 14 IS 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 


"il 


VIII 
VII 
VI 
V 


3SO 
447 
416 
460 




88 




69 




6 1 


24 31 60 78 66 66 47 32 21 16 10 2 4 I I . I 


4.1 







SUBTRACTION (Time 4 minutes) 








Grade 


2 


Number of Examples worked 


« 


I 2 3 4 S 6 7 8 10 II 12 13 14 IS 16 17 18 


19 20 21 


22 23 24 


n 


VIII 


351 


. . 3 4 4 II 27 33 36 44 so 32 26 18 14 10 17 7 7 


3 ■ I 


3 • I 


9.8 


VII 


437 


4 . 8 6 19 27 40 46 52 S3 63 42 30 15 8 5 10 3 2 


2 I 


I 


8.8 


VI 


423 


4 8 13 17 36 43 46 56 61 43 29 30 23 7 I • 3 3 ■ 






7-8 


V 


460 


8 19 38 54 57 75 64 41 33 33 19 II 3 2 i i 


. , . 




5» 



MULTIPLICATION (Time 6 minutes) 






Number of Examples Worked 



o I 2 3 4 s 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 IS 16 17 18 19 20 21 21 23 24 



^1 



VIII 
VII 
VI 
V 



I 1 4 3 II 

I 7 19 22 31 
10 9 20 SI 54 
10 18 50 77 102 



29 38 59 37 42 33 29 24 7 II II 7 i 

50 59 59 69 47 37 20 II 2 5 2 . 2 

76 68 30 40 20 17 10 s I I . . 

83 53 26 16 16 3 3 I . . . . 



DIVISION (Time 8 minutes) 



Orade 



Number of Examples Worked 



01234567 



9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 



VIII 
VII 
VI 
V 



2 I 2 3 17 19 26 37 33 38 31 36 41 19 II 15 6 4 s 4 I 

4 14 16 26 30 43 37 40 45 44 40 26 36 21 10 6 4 3 2 I 2 

ro 23 30 45 49 52 49 44 32 33 18 13 14 7 I I i . . . . 

42 72 78 81 79 45 29 20 6 2 2 . I 



The Efficiency of the Instruction Measured 177 




I 1 I I I I I I I I I 

^ * « S 5 
I I I I I I I I I I I 



I I I I I I I I I i I I I I I I 
till I I I I I I • I I I I I 




178 School Organization and Administration 



WIDELY DIFFERENT RESULTS IN DIFFERENT SCHOOLS 

The full details of this are shown, for the fourteen schools 
tested, by Table XXIX, which gives the score of the median 
child in each grade and in each subject, combining them for 
the city as a whole at the bottom of the table. 

From this table it appears that there is a wide difference 
between schools. In addition, we find a range in grade five 
of from 2.8 to 6.5, in grade six from 2.5 to 9.3, in grade 
seven from ^.y to 9.9, and in grade eight from 5.3 to lo.o. 
In the other subjects the range is approximately the same. 
It is interesting to add that in three of the four grades tak- 
ing the additional test, those classes which made the highest 
standing are using exactly the same number of minutes per 
week on arithmetic as are the classes which made the lowest 
standing. 

If the amount of time used on the subject does not ac- 
count for the wide differences which this table reveals, and 
apparently it does not, then this would seem to be a condi- 
tion worthy of study by principals and supervisors. Just 
what ought to be accomplished in a given grade, with a 
given time allotment, is a question which can well be raised 
in connection with each of the subjects presented in this 
chapter. Every city system of schools should have stand- 
ards of its own for every subject, which each school should 
strive to approximate. These standards need not be identi- 
cal with those in other cities, but should be determined by 
the relative importance of the different subjects for a given 
community. The same principle will justify slight varia- 
tions in those standards for different schools, as they rei> 
resent varying types of community life within a city. This 
table, however, reveals extremely wide differences, which 
conditions in Salt Lake City do not seem to warrant. A 
reasonable uniformity in results is as desirable as is a whole- 
some lack of uniformity in methods of getting those results. 



The Efficiency of the Instruction Measured 179 



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i8o School Organization and Administration 



COMPARISON WITH OTHER CITIES 

To measure the results achieved in Salt Lake City with 
similar results attained in other cities, Table XXX is pre- 
sented. Here the relative standings of Detroit, Boston, a 
group of smaller cities, called " other cities," Butte, and 
Salt Lake City are placed side by side for each of the four 
subjects. These results are absolutely comparable, and 



TABLE XXX 

The Standing of Salt Lake City in the Fundamentals of Arithmetic, 
AS Compared with Other Cities, Judged by the Median Score At- 
tained BY Each Grade 





ADDITION 






M 


ULTIPl 


uICAT] 


ON 


V 


VI 


VII 


VIII 




V 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


3-9 
3-7 
3-9 

2-9 

4.1 


4.6 
4-9 
4-4 
3-4 
6.4 


S-4 
5.6 
4-7 
3.8 
6.9 


6.7 
7-9 
S.6 

53 
8.8 


Detroit Qan., 1914) 
Boston (Jan., 1914) 
Other Cities 
Butte (May, 1914) 
SALT LAKE CITY 


3-8 
3-3 
2.6 
4.1 
4.3 


4.8 
4.8 
45 
5-0 
5.3 


6.0 
SI 

5-2 

6.5 
7.1 


7-S 

6.4 
8.1 
8.3 


c 


,UBTRACTION 






DIVISION 




SS 
4-9 
4S 

2.9 

5.2 


6.2 

6.1 
3-4 
7.8 


7-3 
6.9 
7.8 
3-8 
8.8 


9-5 
8.6 
8.4 
5-3 
9.8 


Detroit (Jan., 1914) 
Boston (Jan., 1914) 
Other Cities 
Butte (May, 1914) 
SALT LAKE CITY 


27 
2.0 
2-3 
3.6 
3.0 


4.4 
ii 
4-3 
4-3 
5.5 


7-1 

i-8 

7-2 

7.7 


8.8 
6.9 
6.3 
10.2 
9.5 



show that the Salt Lake City schools stand well ahead in all 
grades in addition and multiplication, in two grades in sub- 
traction, and in two grades in division. Nbwhere are the 
Salt Lake City schools more than .7 of one score behind 
the best. Figure 25 presents these data graphically, and by 
following the dotted line across from each of the grades it 
will be seen that in many cases Salt Lake City is from one- 
half to a full grade ahead of other cities, rarely being sur- 
passed by any except Butte. This is perhaps an enviable 
record, but it must not be forgotten that the above refer- 
ence to individual, class, and school records leaves much to 



The Efficiency of the Instruction Measured i8 



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BOSTON OTHER CITia BUTTE 



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1 82 School Organization and Administration 

accomplish by way of finer internal organization and more 
careful individualized instruction.^ 



ACCURACY IN USE OF NUMBER COMBINATIONS 

The above has dealt only with examples correctly worked, 
and does not show how many were attempted, or for which 
incorrect answers were given; that is, how dependable the 
figuring of the children really is. A typical illustration of 
the distribution of attempts is shown in Table XXXI, 
which gives the nimiber of addition examples attempted by 
each grade, the median number attempted, and finally the 
per cent, which the median number correctly worked is of 



' Subsequent to the publication of the original report of this survey, the 
January, 1915, scores for Detroit, Boston, and "Other Cities" have been de- 
termined; also interesting data for groups of cities in Kansas, Iowa, and In- 
diana. These data are presented here partly to show that Salt Lake City 
still has room for improvement. The following table contrasts strongly with 
Table XXX, and shows that marked recent progress has been made, doubt- 
less as a result of the use of these scientific tests: 

TABLE XXX a 

Supplementary Table, Showing Standing of Salt Lake City in the Fun- 
damentals OF Arithmetic, Compared with Other Cities, and Based 
on More Recent Data 





ADDITION 






MULTIPLICATION 


V 


VI 


VII 


VIII 




V 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


S-7 


7.0 


75 


9.4 


Detroit (May, 1915) 


S-8 


7.2 


7.8 


Q.8 


6.6 


8.S 


9.0 


10.4 


Boston (May, 191 5) 


5.6 


7.2 


8.2 


9-3 


3.6 


5-4 


6.3 


71 


Other Cities (May, 191S) 


4.0 


S.8 


8.6 


8.-; 


.^•0 


3-9 


4.8 


5.4 


Kansas (Jan., 1915) 


31 


4-7 


.s-g 


8.3 


.";-2 


S-7 


6.6 


75 


Iowa (June, 1915) 


,<>.6 


6.7 


8.2 


9.S 


xt 


4.4 


4-9 


■;.« 


Indiana (May, iqis) 


3-9 


.S-l 


.S.9 


7-3 


4.1 


6.4 


6.9 


8.5 


SALT LAKE CITY 


4.3 


5.3 


7.1 


8.3 





SUBTRACTION 






DIVISION 




7.9 


8.6 


9.9 


I2S 


Detroit (May, 191S) 


4.6 


7-3 


00 


11.7 


7-7 


9S 


10.3 


11.8 


Boston (May, 1915) 


49 


7 


4 


8.8 


II.O 


S.6 


7-3 


8.Q 


10.3 


Other Cities (May, 191S) 


3-7 


.■; 


7 


6.7 


9-3 


4.0 


5-9 


7.2 


7-7 


Kansas, (Jan., lois) 


2.0 


3 


.■; 


.S.3 


7.2 


7.0 


8.0 


9.2 


11. 1 


Iowa (June, 1915) 


S-o 


6 


3 


8.0 


10.9 


S-o 


b-t; 


7-9 


8.9 


Indiana (May, igi";) 


2.6 


4 


8 


6.7 


9.1 


5.2 


7.8 


8.8 


9.8 


SALT LAKE CITY 


3.0 


5.5 


7.7 


9.5 



The Efficiency of the Instruction Measured 183 




184 School Organization and Administration 

the median number attempted. That is, the per cent, of 
accuracy. 

In the matter of accuracy thus measured, Table XXXII 
compares the schools of Salt Lake City with those of Bos- 

TABLE XXXII 

Showing the Median Number of Examples Tried and the Median Num- 
ber Correctly Worked in the Salt Lake City Schools, and the Per 
Cent, of Examples Tried which were Correctly Worked in Salt 
Lake City, as Compared with Other Cities 







Salt Lake 


Per Cent, of 


Examples Correctly 




Grade 


City Median 






Worked 




Subject 




















At- 


Rights 


Salt 
Lake 


Bos- 


De- 


20 
Ind. 


24 
Kas. 






tempt 




City 


ton' 


troit ' 


Cities 2 


Cities' 




VIII 


9.9 


8.5 


88.8 


70.9 


65-7 


56.8 


71 


Addition 


VII 


9.1 


6.9 


75.8 


60.8 


59-8 


60.5 


67 




VI 


7-9 


6.4 


81.0 


S9-0 


54-7 


59-4 


65 




V 


6.9 


41 


56.9 


51-4 


S8.2 


54-5 


52 




VIII 


ii.S 


9.8 


83.1 


75-4 


77.2 


68.5 


86 


Subtraction 


VII 


lO.I 


8.8 


87.1 


69.0 


74-5 


73-0 


83 




VI 


8.5 


7.8 


91.7 


70.0 


70.4 


76.4 


81 




V 


7-5 


5-2 


69-3 


64.4 


68.7 


79-5 


63 




VIII 


10.8 


8.3 


76.8 


68.4 


71.4 


61.9 


82 


Multiplication 


VII 


8.6 


7-1 


82.5 


63.8 


62.5 


67.1 


78 




VI 


7-7 


S-Z 


66.8 


69-5 


64.8 


68.6 


77 




V 


6.6 


4.3 


65.1 


56.8 


59-3 


71-5 


57 




VIII 


10.3 


95 


92.2 


77.1 


85.4 


57.8 


92 


Division 


VII 


8.7 


7-7 


88.5 


73-9 


82.5 


84.2 


87 




VI 


6.7 


5-5 


82.1 


56.9 


68.7 


78.8 


84 




V 


4-4 


3-0 


68.2 


44.4 


55-1 


85.8 


53 



' J.inuary, 1014, scores. 

' Indiana University Bulletin, Vol. XH, No. 18, March, 1015. These figures represent the 
record attained by the median city o( the twenty cities studied. A cooperative study, directed 
by Professor M. E. Haggerty. 

' Report of the Use of the Courtis Standard Tests in Arithmetic in Twenty-four Kansas Cities, 
Bulletin No. 4, Kansas State Normal School. Reported by Walter S. Monroe. 



The Efficiency of the Instruction Measured 185 

ton, Detroit, and twenty cities in Indiana recently tested. 
The median attempts and the median rights are shown for 
Salt Lake City, the rights being divided by the attempts to 
ascertain the per cent, of accuracy. Here again Salt Lake 



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DETROIT SALT LAKE 



20 CITIES 



CITY IN INDIANA 

Fig. 26. Relative Accuracy in Addition 



City stands high. In accuracy the city is surpassed any- 
where in addition in but one grade out of the four tested ; 
in subtraction in but two grades ; in multiplication, by three 
grades ; and in division by three,* 

A graphic illustration, fully typical of the results in this 

* In the more recent tests, the results for which are given in Supplementary 
Table XXX a, both Boston and Detroit have raised their per cent, of accuracy 
materially. 



1 86 School Organization and Administration 

table, is shown in Fig-ure 26, where Salt Lake City is com- 
pared with Detroit and the twenty Indiana cities in respect 
to accuracy in addition. 

It is clear, then, that Salt Lake City, as compared with 
other cities, is achieving nothing short of excellent results in 
the fundamentals of arithmetic, and that not only with re- 
spect to the number of examples worked in a given amount 
of time, that is, speed, but also in respect to the degree of 
accuracy with which this work is done.^ 



THE REASONING TEST 

Where reasoning is involved, the test is not only one of 
correct use of number combinations, but also one of analyz- 
ing simple arithmetical problems. In this test the children 
of Salt Lake City again rank high. The distribution of 
individual scores is set forth in Table XXXIII, which 
shows also the achievement for the median child of each 
grade. These facts are presented graphically in Figure 27. 

Here the same wide variability as has appeared in other 
tests is again evident. In grade five there were fifteen chil- 
dren who could not solve one of the seventeen problems set 
for the test, while more than sixty children solved seven or 
more. In grades seven and eight the variability is still 
wider. In order to show that this is fully typical of the con- 
dition existing in almost every individual class. Table 
XXXIV, presenting the exact scores made by one class from 
each grade, is given. 

On the basis of these facts we must again ask how a 
lesson can be assigned to such classes so that, on the one 
hand, it is not so difficult as to be impossible for the children 

1 Mr. Courtis has shown, by a recent investigation (see Fiflecnlh Yearbook 
of the National Socidy for the Study of Education, Pt. I, 91-106) covering a test 
of 242 adults, including laborers, stenographers, teachers, saleswomen, office 
employees, superintendents, and high-wage men of independent means, that 
the practical demands of life are for a speed and accuracy about equivalent to 
eighth-grade standard achievement. 



The Efficiency of the Instruction Measured 187 



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Riverside . 
Sumner 
Lafayette . 



School Organization and Administration 



31 inr IZDE-MEOIANS 




SCORE: 2 4 6 S" 10 12 14 16 



Fig. 27. Distribution of Results in the Stone Reasoning Test 



The Efficiency oj the Instruction Measured 189 

at one extreme of this table, or on the other hand so easy 
as to be a mere bore to the children at the other extreme. 
Here it is not a question of high average results, for these 
are high enough ; it is one of refining organization and in- 
struction to the end that children of extremely high and ex- 
tremely low abilities will not constitute handicaps for each 
other. 

The improvement from grade to grade, as is shown in 
Figure 27, seems all that could be desired, and Table XXXV 
shows, with some exceptions in grade five, a fair degree of 
uniformity of results between schools. 

These facts seem to argue that the schools have a clear 
notion of what is to be attained by each grade, but that 
they are getting results only in terms of class averages and 
at the expense of right classroom conditions. By giving 
attention to these inner details Salt Lake City can raise the 
excellent standards she has already achieved. 



COMPARISON WITH OTHER CITIES IN REASONING TEST 

The author of this reasoning test has presented the rec- 
ords made by the sixth grade in twenty-six different cities. 
Add to these the records of Bridgeport, Conn., Springfield, 
111., and Salt Lake City, and Salt Lake City stands ninth 
from the top of the list. The highest score, based on the 
score per each 100 pupils, attained by any one of these 
twenty-nine cities was 914; the lowest was 356. That for 
Salt Lake City was 646. 

As compared, grade by grade, with the results in Butte, 
Salt Lake City's median fifth-grade child can solve 1.5 more 
problems of this test than can the median fifth-grade child 
of Butte ; the sixth-grade child of Salt Lake City can solve 
2.5 more; the seventh-grade child 2.8 more; and the 
eighth-grade child 2.8 more. 

From these results it is clear that the schools of this city 
rank high in the ability of their children to reason. It is 



iQo School Organization and Administration 



TABLE XXXV 

Showing the Average Score Attained by Classes in the Various Schools 
IN the Reasoning Test in Arithmetic 

(Stone Test) 



School 



Grade 



VIII 



VII 



VI 



TOTAL FOR CITY 

Forest 

Grant 

Hamilton 

Lafayette 

Lincoln 

Lowell 

Onequa 

Oquirrh 

Riverside 

Sumner 

Training 

Wasatch 

Webster 

Whittier 



10.5 
9-3 

II. 7 

I0.6 
g.i 

9-7 

Q.O 
I0.2 

14-5 



8.6 

I0.6 

7-7 

8.2 

8.3 

I0.8 

8.6 

9-5 
8.9 
7.6 

lO.O 

7.8 

8.0 

10.4 



6.4 
6.6 
7-4 
5-4 
6.5 
4.1 

7-4 
6.2 
7.6 

5-3 
6.2 
4.8 
7.2 

5-9 

7.0 



3.7 
2.9 
4.6 
4.6 
4.0 
2.2 
4.8 
3-2 
4.6 

3-3 
4.4 
4.4 

3-4 
4.1 

5-5 



also true, as stated above, that the present problem is 
one of perfecting the details of class organization and 
instruction. 



6. Summary and Recommendations 

This chapter has not dealt with the quality of instruction 
in general, but only as quality has been revealed by actual 
results, stated in terms of standardized tests. It is there- 
fore concerned with the causes of poor or excellent quality, 
only as the data with which it deals make these causes 
evident. 



The Efficiency of the Instruction Measured 191 

CONCLUSIONS 

In so far as the results found have shown that the schools 
are controlling, with good effect, those main factors which 
were enumerated at the outset of the chapter as being prin- 
cipally responsible for the quality of instruction, those re- 
sults have been commended. On the other hand, where 
the schools are clearly not exercising such control, the nature 
of such failure has been pointed out, and the responsibility 
placed. It is only necessary to summarize the findings here, 
and further to emphasize the lines along which improve- 
ments and further progress should be sought. 

1. It should first of all be said that Salt Lake City ranks 
high among cities of her class, in each of the five studies in 
which tests were given. The comparison being made in 
terms of average attainment. 

2. In spelling, so large a percentage of children made a 
perfect score that full interpretation of the results is diffi- 
cult. The city's average standing being 16 per cent, above 
the standard. 

3. In spelling, language, writing, and the fundamentals 
of arithmetic, wide differences exist between the results 
shown for different schools. Foreign languages at home 
may partly account for such differences, particularly in com- 
position. There is a limit, though, to which even such 
causes should be permitted to modify the school standards. 
If a child is doing fifth-grade language work, he should not 
ordinarily be classed as an eiglith-grade pupil. 

4. The differences between grades are, with few excep- 
tions, approximately what they should be. 

5. The range of abilities in any given grade is entirely 
too great, as judged by all of the five tests. 

6. Similarly the range of abilities within a given class, 
again in all subjects tested, is far too great. 

7. At least one-fourth more time is being given to spell- 
ing, and more than one-fourth more to arithmetic, than is 
justified in the light of the best knowledge on the subject. 



192 School Organization and Administration 



RECOMMENDATIONS 

With these facts before us the following recommenda- 
tions are made : 

1. Spelling should not have more than 60 to 75 minutes 
per week, and arithmetic from 75 minutes in grade two, to 
200 minutes in grade eight. A part of the surplus time 
from these two branches should be given to language work, 
and part to other parts of the curriculum than the subjects 
dealt with here. 

2. The only economical and pedagogical way of meeting 
the needs of the extremely dull and extremely bright pupils 
(perhaps from four to ten per cent, of each class tested) is 
by a much larger use of ungraded rooms, to which the most 
skillful teachers should be assigned. It would be easy for 
all the larger schools of the city to find from 25 to 50 chil- 
dren who ought, for their own sakes and for the sakes of 
other children as well, to be placed in such rooms. This 
would provide an inestimable relief in all class work in the 
school. This is the most evident and the most important 
need which is brought to light by these tests. 

3. The best and most constant supervision of this work 
is needed to work out necessary readjustments. It should 
be added that, so long as the grade lines are stiffly main- 
tained as the only basis for the classification of children, 
part of the value of expert supervision is nullified. 

4. In addition to this, promotion by subjects ought to be 
a possibility more frequently made use of. When a fourth- 
grade child can read as well as a seventh-grade child, he 
ought not to be kept in the fourth grade for reading just 
because he cannot leave his fourth-grade arithmetic. 

5. Briefly, what the schools have achieved in general, 
they should now set themselves to achieve in particular. 



The Efficiency of the Instruction Measured 193 



THE USE OF STANDARDIZED TESTS 

A final word may be said about the use of standard tests. 
First, we desire to commend the use that supervisors and 
principals have been making of these modern educational 
tools. Teachers should become familiar with such scales 
and tests as have been used here; not with how they were 
made, but with how to use them. The teacher who is able 
to measure her own product, or to have it measured by the 
supervisor, will develop confidence in her methods or dis- 
cover reasons for changing them. 

As an instrument in supervision tests are indispensable. 
Of course testing can never displace constructive helpful 
criticism, but standardized tests furnish a rational basis for 
such criticism, without which the best supervision is handi- 
capped. So far as was observed they are being properly 
used by the principals and supervisors, but they may go 
even farther in displacing the ordinary form of school 
examination. 



CHAPTER IX 

THE PROGRESS OF CHILDREN THROUGH 
THE SCHOOLS 1 

IMPORTANCE OF PROPER SCHOOL PROGRESS 

A PROBLEM which is of increasing importance in edu- 
cation today is that of school progress. Since the 
welfare of the individual child is the aim toward which 
every good school system works, the recognition and analy- 
sis of the differences among children calls for much greater 
attention than is usually given. Children are ordinarily 
expected to enter the first grade of the elementary school 
at the age of six, and to complete the eighth grade during 
their fourteenth year. Those who accomplish this are 
said to have made normal progress. It is for these, who 
constitute the majority of our school children, that the 
course of study and the system of grading are best adapted. 

Those who complete the eighth grade in less than eight 
years after entering, or whose age at any time during that 
period is less than that of the child whose progress is nor- 
mal, are said to be accelerated. 

There is still another group of children, who require more 
than eight years to finish the elementary school, or whose 
age at some time is greater than that of the normal child. 
These are said to be retarded. 

AGE AND GRADE DISTRIBUTION 

Statistics were collected in regard to the ages and grades 
of all the children in the public schools of Salt Lake City 

' Chapter IX was written by Mr. J. Harold Williams. — Publishers. 

194 



Progress of Children Through the Schools 



195 





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< 



196 School Organization and Administration 

on the tenth day of May, 191 5. The results have been tabu- 
lated, and are shown in Table XXXVI. The number of 



TABLE XXXVII 

Accelerated, Normal, and Retarded Pupils in Salt Lake City, by 

Grades 



Grade 



I A . . 
IB.. 

II A . 

II B . 

III A . 

III B . 

IV A . 
IV B . 
VA . 
VB . 
VIA . 

VI B . 

VII A. 

VII B . 

VIII A 
VIII B 



Accelerated 



No. 



37 

580 

45 
327 

86 
316 

77 
206 

75 
182 

85 
123 

49 
146 

36 

178 



5-9 
30.0 

57-1 
23.6 
10.7 
21.3 
8.6 
16.2 

8.5 
16.1 
10.7 
12.2 

7-7 
I5-I 

9.9 
18.1 



Normal 



No. 



355 
954 
318 
689 
368 
656 
345 
S18 
279 
426 
225 
358 
183 
340 
131 
338 



/o 



Retarded 



No. 



239 
40 

273 
372 
385 
516 
470 
548 
525 
527 
486 
528 
392 
480 
194 
460 



% 



38.3 
20.7 
12.2 
26.8 
46.3 
34-7 
52.6 

43-0 
59-8 
46.4 
61.0 

52.3 
62.5 
49.6 

53-7 
47.2 



High School 



IX A 

IX B 
XA. . 

X B. . 

XI A 

XI B 

XII A 
XII B 

Totals 



17 

91 

6 

71 
3 

70 

o 

53 

2,859 



5-7 
18. 1 

6.3 
18.7 

4.8 
26.3 
66.7 
25-7 

16.2 



172 

135 
23 
90 

4 
93 

7,122 



40.0 



59 



7.641 



180 


63.1 


236 


47-5 


56 


59-0 


248 


45-6 


36 


57-9 


105 


39-8 



29.1 



43-4 



Progress of Children Through the Schools 197 

children of each half-year of age and in each half-grade are 
given, and the heavy-faced lines running diagonally through 
the center of the table include between them the number 
of children who are normal for each age and grade. For 




Fig. 



28. Showing Relative Proportions of Normal, Retarded, and 
Accelerated Pupils in the Salt Lake City Schools 



example, this includes those in the first grade who are be- 
tween the ages of six and one-half and eight years. ^ All 



• It should be remembered that the age-grade statistics were taken at the 
end of the school year, so that the age for completing any grade, rather than that 



198 School Organization and Administration 

of those falling below this normal line are " over age," and 
may be considered retarded; those above the normal line 
are accelerated. 

The percentages of children of each of these groups, and 
by grades, are shown in Table XXXVII, on page 196. 

Figure 28, on page 197, in which the distribution of the 
total school enrollment in this respect is shown, gives the 
same result in graphic form. 



HIGH PERCENTAGE OF RETARDED PUPILS 

The significant fact in regard to this distribution is that 
the retarded group is the largest of the three. The back- 
ward children in the ungraded school are not included in 
these percentages. If these were added, the proportion 
represented by the dark area of the circle would be still 
greater. 

This city ranks among those having a relatively high per- 
centage of retarded pupils. Table XXXVIII gives a partial 
list of cities in which similar studies have been made. All, 
with the exception of Salt Lake City and Butte, Montana, 
have been taken from Ayres' Identification of the Misfit 
Child ."^ 

It is of further importance to note that not only are 43.3 
per cent, of the school children in this city retarded, but in 
many cases the degree of retardation reaches two, three, or 
even more than four years. The amount of each is shown 
in Figure 29. 

Thus it will be seen that although in the shaded area the 
number retarded one year makes up the largest group, nearly 
one-half as many are retarded two years ; and that the num- 
ber retarded three and four years is half as large as the t wo- 
of beginning, was taken. The basis used in determining over-ageness is the 
usual basis for counting. The three-year limit used in the Salt Lake City school 
reports is too liberal. 

^ Russell Sage Foundation, New York, Bulletin No. 108. 



Progress of Children Through the Schools 199 

year group. Such a condition emphasizes anew the need 
for more ungraded rooms and those pupil adjustments 
pointed out in the preceding chapter. 



TABLE XXXVIII 

Retardation and Acceleration in American Cities 

(Elementary Schools Only) 



City 



Retarded 



Normal 



Accel- 
erated 



1. Quincy, Mass 

2. Racine, Wis 

3. Amsterdam, N.Y. . . . 

4. Syracuse, N.Y 

5. Indianapolis, Ind. . . . 

6. Danbury, Conn. . . . 

7. Milwaukee, Wis. . . . 

8. Rockford, 111 

Q. Canton, O 

10. Elmira, N.Y 

11. New Rochelle, N.Y. . . 

12. Muskegon, Mich. . . . 

13. Niagara Falls, N.Y. . . 

14. Topeka, Kansas .... 

15. Danville, 111 

16. Trenton, N.J 

17. Reading, Pa 

18. Plainfield, N.J 

19. Perth Amboy, N.J. . . 

20. Bayonne, N.J 

21. Hazelton, Pa 

22. SALT LAKE CITY . 

23. East St. Louis, 111. . . . 

24. Elizabeth, N.J 

25. Kenosha, Wis 

26. Montclair, N.J 

27. New Orleans, La. (White) 

28. Butte, Mont 

29. Passaic, N.J 



19% 

28 

28 

29 

29 

31 

31 

32 

34 

34 

34 

35 

36 

36 

38 

38 

40 

40 

41 

42 

42 

44 

44 
46 



4Q 
51 
51 



31% 
42 
23 
29 

37 
31 
41 
40 
38 
28 

30 
40 

33 
38 
34 
31 
35 
30 
32 
31 
36 
39 
34 
31 
36 
34 
31 
41 
32 



50% 

30 

49 

42 

34 

38 

28 

28 

28 

38 

36 

25 

31 

26 

28 

31 

25 

30 

27 

27 
22 
17 
22 

23 
16 
18 
20 
7 
17 



200 School Organization and Administration 



DISTRIBUTION OF THE RETARDED PUPILS 

Figure 30 shows the extent of this problem in detail, in- 
dicating how each grade in the school is affected by the 
great number of children who vary from the normal. 



_TH0U3AND- 



Ll^^y.^^ 




Z 1 

ACCELERATEID 



1 2. 3 

RETARDED 



4 YEAR3 



Fig. 29. Degree of Acceleration or Retardation of Pupils in 
THE Salt Lake City Schools 



Retardation begins early in the grades and increases to 
the sixth grade, when there is a noticeable falling oft'. 
This falling off is due in part to the fact that the reg- 
ular routine school work offers little attraction to a child 
who has become greatly retarded, and in part to the 
fact that many reach the end of the compulsory school 
age by the time this point is reached. (See Figin^e 13, 
page 63.) Repeating the same work over and over 
again becomes monotonous even for normal adults. In 



Progress of Children Through the Schools 201 



Figure 31 the number of children in the A and B sections 
of each grade have been added together, and the increase 



ACCELERATED 



GRADE 
I 

n 
n 
m 



[e 



E2: 



^SS[ 






B E^S^ 



AESSS 



BISS 



AE^ 



Tzr 



YR 



HE 



n 



X 



II 



M 



A 



B E^sa 



AE^S 



LB 8^^^^ 
A 



s: 



^SS3 



^^M 



A^^ 



B iSS 



;vnn^ 



A ESC 



B ^SS 



WsVT 



A^ 



A 



B gES^S^^ 
A 



B fes^W-VWWVX^CT 



CrU-NORMAlEa- 1 YR.^a=2YRSilIII]IIIl"3 YRSaBB«4 YRS. 
-* RETARDED 

q PERCEMT. 



•Jo 



I^^SSS^SS 



sn 



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:es 



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^^^S^ 



E^S^^: 



I^S 



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E^SS^^^^ 



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ESS AWWHW SSSSSl 



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E^^WWWX^^l 



S^ 



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KWWAWW WWW^t 



^^ lUIl 



Fig. 30. Showing Distribution of Normal, Accelerated, and 
Retarded Pupils, by Grades 

in retardation to the sixth grade, and the falHng off there- 
after, are more clearly shown. 

The amount of retardation in Grade I is 29.5 per cent.; 
in Grade VI, 56.6 per cent. ; and in Grade VIII, 50.4 per 
cent. 



202 School Organization and Administration 

Dropping out of school on the part of retarded pupils is 
not an uncommon occurrence in our city schools, and has 
been noted in many cities. Investigations show that the 

10 ZO 30 40 50 GO tnctttt. 



GRADE 



GRADE 



GRADE 



GRADE 



GRADE 



GRADE 



GRADi Ml 



GRADE 



n 



IE 



W 



m 



lOE 



Fig. 31. Percentage of Retarded Pupils, by Grades 



children who drop out at that time are usually those who 
have become discouraged through failures, and through 
the embarrassment of being greatly over-age. It would be 
comparatively easy to show that dropping out of school be- 



Progress of Children Through the Schools 203 

fore reaching" the eighth grade is many times as common 
among retarded children as among those who have made 
normal progress. 



CONDITIONS IN ONE ROOM 

The following is an example of the conditions found in 
one class in Salt Lake City. The condition shown here is 
not unusual for the city. Such conditions are not infre- 
quently brought about by the wide range of ages in a single 
room: Miss G., teacher of Grades II-B and III-A, in the 
F. school, has in her room thirty-nine pupils, who are dis- 
tributed by ages thus : 



Ages 


2-B 


3-A 


•a 

u 
u 

< 


7-0- 7-5 
7.6- 7.11 
8.0- 8.S 
8.6- 8.11 
9.0- 9.5 
9.6- 9.11 
10.0-10.5 
10.6-10.11 
II.O-II.S 
11.6-11.11 
12.0-12.5 
12. 6-12. II 


















2 

4 


1 
I 


6 

3 


I 
4 


d 


3 

I 

I 
I 
I 


I 
4 
3 

I 
I 


-a 

-a 
(-1 

0) 



Only those inclosed by the heavy lines can be said to be 
normal. Those above are accelerated, and those below are 
retarded. With the accelerated pupils in this room the 
teacher will have little difficulty. True, they may be of 
superior intelligence, and capable of doing much more work 
than any teacher of thirty-nine pupils can afford to arrange 
for them. But their progress is assured to a reasonable de- 



204 School Organization and Administration 

gree. The striking feature of the class is the " over-age- 
ness " with which the teacher has to deal. The seventeen 
pupils represented below the line will require her attention 
during the entire school day, if they are to be properly in- 
structed. In fact, a class of seventeen retarded pupils is 
larger than the generally accepted maximum for such classes. 
Fortunately, all of the pupils below the line in this in- 
stance are not mentally below normal. Those nearest the 
line may have been held out of school for a time, or may be 
retarded for reasons of such slight consequence that no 
unusual amount of special attention need be given them. 
There are at least seven pupils in the class, however, who 
are seriously over-age. We may be sure that all of those 
below the dotted line are in need of a great deal of indi- 
vidual instruction or training. 



A PROPER REDISTRIBUTION OF THE PUPILS 

Assuming that children can be graded properly in the 
schools, Figure 32 represents the pupils in this room, ar- 
ranged in order of their ages, to show how a reasonable 
separation could be brought about. Such a separation, how- 
ever, requires the general provision of ungraded and special 
classes. 

After removing the extreme cases, this still leaves thirty 
pupils whose ages vary from 73^^ to 10 years. Considering 
further the conditions relative to the lighting and ventilat- 
ing of the basement room in which this class was found, it 
is not difficult to see that the teacher will still have a task 
equal, at least, to her compensation. 



THE FIFTH GRADE AS AN EXAMPLE OF UNEVEN 
DISTRIBUTION 

In further illustration of the uneven distribution of chil- 
dren in the grades, data concerning all fifth-grade pupils in 



Progress of Children Through the Schools 205 

the city have been brought together and presented in 
Figure 33. 

The enrollment and age-distribution in this grade are 
such that the group is fairly representative of all the grades, 



IZ MRS. 



n_ _ _ _ _ 



,0- -- — T- 



9- 



30 
TOTAL, 39 PUPILS. 



Fig. 32. 



Accelerated, Normal, and Retarded Pupils in One 
Room 



The above shows a schoolroom of 39 pupils in Salt Lake City. Although 30 normal pupils 
should constitute an average room, there are 2 additional pupils accelerated and 7 additional 
pupils retarded to such a degree as to warrant their removal to special classes. This room is 
typical of conditions to be found in many schools. 

and this diagram is not an exaggeration of the unevenness 
found through the school system. 



REPEATERS 



Inability on the part of pupils to do the v^ork of their 
grade usually results in non-promotion, and hence the ne- 
cessity of repeating the work another year or half-year. 



2o6 School Organization and Administration 







COS I S 1 s e 1 1 s s s g fi e p e fi 



Some children have repeated the work as many as six times, 
and cases of even a larger niiml)er of repetitions have been 
found. There were at the time of the survey 1,570 pupils 
in Salt Lake City who were repeating their grades. This is 



Progress of Children Through the Schools 207 

approximately 9 per cent, of the entire number belonging. 
The teacher was asked in each case to state whether the 
work of each child was being taken for the first, second, 
third, fourth, or more times. The number in each case of 
repetition is as follows : 

Taking work the second time 1,555 Pupils 

Taking work the third time loi pupils 

Taking work the fourth time, or more • • 14 pupils 





'CU'Lonef/ 






3000 








ZSOO 




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RESULT 5 OF PROMOTIONS 


I9I3-M. 






1 1 PRONVOTED 






IHl FAILED 



Fig. 34. Relative Number of Promotions and Failures, by Grades 

In Figure 34 the relative number of promotions and fail- 
ures are shown for each grade for the year 191 3-14, as 
printed in the last annual report of the board of education. 



2o8 School Organization and Administration 

AH of the children represented in each grade by the dark- 
ened area will become " repeaters " for the next half-year, 
provided they remain in school. It will be observed that 
the relative nimiber of failures decreases somewhat through 
the grades, until the number who are not promoted to the 
high-school grades is very small. This is unquestionably 
due to the dropping out of the backward pupils before reach- 
ing the higher grades. The number retained in the first 
grade is approximately i6 per cent, of the total number 
belonging. 

CAUSES OF RETARDATION 

The teachers were asked, in each case of repetition or 
serious retardation, to make some statement relative to the 
probable cause. The following were the most frequently 
given reasons: 

1. Poor home conditions. 

2. Physical ailments. 

3. Transferring from another school. 

4. Retarded mental development. 

5. Difficulty with the English language. 

6. Lack of application. 

7. Poor attendance. 

8. Laziness. 

9. Late entering. 
10. Delinquency. 

Many more interesting reasons were given, and while 
probably in certain cases each could be justified as a sepa- 
rate excuse, it is obvious that there is a close relation among 
several of those given here. After analyzing many cases, 
and inquiring into the exact conditions, the writer feels 
sure that, with a few exceptions, the following have pro- 
duced practically all of the retardation in the city : 

1. Mental deficiency. 

2. Physical ailments. 

3. Poor home conditions. 



Progress of Children Through the Schools 209 



AGE AT ENTERING THE FIRST GRADE 

It is not uncommon for teachers and principals to assume 
that much of the retardation in their rooms is due to the 
lateness with which the children enter school. That this 
is not an important cause, considering the large amount of 
retardation, may be easily proved. Children in Salt Lake 
City commonly enter the first grade at the age of six years, 
some enter even earlier, and, although some enter later, the 
number whose retardation is the direct result of late enter- 




FIVE YEARS I SIX YEARS ISEVEN YEARS IeI&HT YEARS InINE YEARS I TEN YEARS 

Fig. 35. Distribution of Ages at which Salt Lake City Children 
Enter the First School Grade 

ing is small. Figure 35 shows the distribution of the enter- 
ing ages. Nearly 70 per cent, have entered at five or six 
years, and nearly 90 per cent, at not later than seven years. 



OTHER EXPLANATIONS FOR RETARDATION 

" Poor home conditions " is one of the most common rea- 
sons given by teachers to account for a child's retardation, 
or his slowness in school. In some cases this is beyond a 
doubt a valid explanation. This is especially true where 
children are needed for long hours of work out of school, 
or where there is drunkenness, immorality, and other forms 
of social degeneracy which would cause discouragement 



2IO School Organization and Administration 

and even contempt for school. There are, however, rela- 
tively few such homes in Salt Lake City. One instance of 
the kind was noted, but the amount of mental deficiency in 
the family would easily account for the conditions. 

" Difficulty with the English language " is also a common 
answer. Since, however, the proportion of children of for- 
eign parentage in this city is so very small, and most of these 
being from northern and western Europe, this can seldom 
account for the slow progress. Further, many cases are on 
record of foreign children of normal mentality who have 
made even better than average progress. 

Physical defects and ill health are probably more com- 
monly causes of retardation than any other factor except 
mental deficiency. How the health conditions of children 
are related to school progress is discussed in another chap- 
ter. With the development of the system of medical inspec- 
tion these causes can be controlled. 



SUBNORMAL AND BACKWARD CHILDREN 

The vast majority of the children who are retarded in 
school are making slow progress because their intelligence 
is below the average for children of their ages. By no 
means, however, are all of these mentally defective; chil- 
dren vary in mental capacity just as we all vary among 
ourselves in height, weight, strength, and ability of all 
kinds. There is thus often a degree of mental retardation 
which accounts for the retardation in school. This mental 
retardation is now measurable, and intelligence testing has 
been so perfected that by means of a brief examination 
with a series of psychological tests the child's mental age 
can be determined. This mental age represents the approx- 
imate level of intelligence of the child, by which he can be 
compared with other children, and his general ability deter- 
mined, as far as this depends upon intelligence. 

Usually about 75 per cent, of ordinary school children 
have normal intelligence levels; that is, their mental age is 



Progress of Children Through the Schools 211 

approximately the same as their actual age in years and 
months. The remainder of the children deviate from the 
normal either above or below. Those whose mental ages 
are decidedly above their actual ages are said to be of su- 
perior intelligence. Those who are slightly below are said 
to be dull-normal, or backward ; while there are some whose 
deviation is so far below the average that they are classified 
as feeble-minded. Another group, just above the feeble- 
minded, consists of those who are above, but very little 
above, the lowest group. These are called border-line cases. 

MENTAL CLASSIFICATION GROUPS 

In the mental classification of children, then, we have 
five general groups : 

1. The feeble-minded group. 

2. The border-line group. 

3. The dull-normal group. 

4. The average-normal group. 

5. Children of superior intelligence. 

Not every child can be definitely placed in one of these 
groups. The names used here are but arbitrary, and do not 
represent the various " types " into which it was formerly 
supposed that children could be classified. In fact, each 
group contains so many varying degrees of intelligence 
that it is difficult to draw a line between any two groups. 
The classification is used merel)' for the sake of convenience 
in discussing the several relative levels of intelligence. 

All of these groups are represented in the public schools 
of Salt Lake City. Children of all of these varying degrees 
were examined during the progress of the survey. It is not 
surprising that children should be greatly variable in their 
school ability and in the progress they make, when we con- 
sider that actual mental capacity is of such varying degrees. 
And it is important to remember that the degree of success 
or failure which will be met in the later life of these children 
is largely dependent upon these levels of intelligence. 



212 School Organization and Administration 

CHILDREN EXAMINED BY INTELLIGENCE TESTS 

A number of children were examined during the survey, 
and their mental ages determined. Records were also ob- 
tainable of children who had been examined by school prin- 
cipals and the psychologist in charge of the ungraded school. 
Enough records were obtained so that the mental ages of 
about 1 20 children were secured. The children selected for 
examination were of three groups : 

1. Those of supposedly normal intelligence. 

2. Those of superior ability. 

3. Those who were backward in their work. 

The children selected by their teachers as being of normal 
intelligence usually tested approximately normal. In one 
case, a child who was thought to be normal was found to 
be somewhat mentally retarded, his quickness and alertness 
having misled persons in estimating his intelligence. In 
another case, a child supposedly no brighter than the aver- 
age was found to be decidedly above the average for her 
age. These examples illustrate how the teacher may some- 
times be mistaken in a child's mental capacity, and these 
mistakes sometimes lead to the misplacing of children in 
school. Not infrequently teachers of many years' experi- 
ence will make such errors. On the whole, however, the 
teacher is better able to judge the intelligence of her pupils 
than any one else, except the psychologist, or one who is 
capable of giving intelligence tests. Teachers rarely make 
a mistake in selecting a child of superior intelligence, and 
almost never is a child found to be normal whom the 
teacher thinks is subnormal. 

Since mistakes do occur, however, it is best not to trust 
the judgment of any person who is not a psychologist, and 
even he will make use of what is known as the Scale for 
Measuring Intelli(:^cnce before making any statement as to 
the mental level of the child. 



Progress of Children Through the Schools 213 



THE MEASURING SCALE USED 

In making the examinations, use was made of the Stan- 
ford Revision of the Binet-Simon Measuring Scale of In- 
telhgence.^ This consists of a series of psychological tests 
which have been arranged in such order that, from the 
number and kinds of tests which a child can pass, the ex- 
aminer can calculate the child's general level of intelligence. 
This scale was formulated in 1908 by Dr. Binet, a French 
psychologist, and Dr. Simon, a physician of Paris. Since 
that time many thousands of school children have been ex- 
amined by this method, and it has been found everywhere 
to be surprisingly accurate and practically indispensable in 
judging intelligence. It has been successfully used with 
normal children, children of superior intelligence, and with 
backward and feeble-minded children and adults. It has 
been used in many different countries, cities, and schools, 
and leading psychologists have found it very useful. Since 
originally published, scientific investigators have been able 
to revise and extend the scale, until to-day its value and ac- 
curacy are much greater than with the original set of tests 
devised by Binet and Simon. The Stanford Revision, 
which was used during the survey, is the most carefully 
worked-out revision which has been made up to the present 
time. 

BACKWARD CHILDREN STUDIED 

To illustrate what a serious problem the mental retarda- 
tion of some children presents to the school, the distribu- 
tion of 108 backward children, for whom accurate records 
were obtained, is shown in Figure 36. 

The area inclosed by the heavy line and shaded shows 
the distribution of the ages of these 108 children. The 
youngest is 7 years, while the oldest is 19. The dotted line 
incloses the area which represents the distribution of the 

1 Terman, L. M., The Measurement of Intelligence. Houghton Mifflin 
Company, Boston. 



214 School Organization and Administration 

mental ages of these same loS children. The youngest 
mental age is 3 years, while the oldest is 13 years. Had a 
group of normal children been thus arranged, the dotted 
line would be superimposed upon the heavy line, and the 
area of mental age would be the same as that of actual age. 
The median mental age of this group is 9 years, while the 



CHILDREN 
-Z5 



M 



M 



' ' ; 



■20 



15- 



-10- 



-J- 




&6ES AND MENTALASES OF 
108 BaCHWARO SCHOOL CHILDREN 
IN SALT LAKE CITt -» 



2^22. 



3 A s 6 r r 9 10 II 12 19 14 19 IS It \r i9 years 



Fig. 36. Actual and Mental Ages Compared, for a Group of 
Retarded Pupils 



median actual age is 12. Thus there is a general retardation 
of 3 years, or 25 per cent. 

In some individual cases, the retardation is much more 
than 3 years. For example, the child who tested 3 years 
mentally in this case is actually 9 years of age, and thus 
his retardation is more than 66 per cent. Such a child, of 
course, is of extremely low intelligence, and does not belong 
in any public school, but should be placed in an institution 
for the feeble-minded. When the State of Utah builds such 
an institution, or colony, the teachers in the public schools 



Progress of Children Through the Schools 215 

will not be burdened as they now are with children who are 
so helpless. Very fortunately there are but few such low- 
grade children in the public schools of Salt Lake City. 

FEEBLE-MINDED CHILDREN 

There are many children in the schools of this city, how- 
ever, who just as properly belong in institutions or colonies 
for the feeble-minded as the one just mentioned, although 
their deficiency is proportionately so much less that it is 
not so easily recognized. For these cases the Intelligence 
Scale is of much greater importance. Ordinarily, children 
whose intelligence is found, by measurement, to be less than 
75 per cent, of their actual ages, are feeble-minded. This 
means that their intelligence, as long as they live, will not 
develop to a level much beyond that of the average child of 
12 years. It must be remembered that this 12-year level is 
the upper limit, and that most feeble-minded persons never 
reach this level. Many of them, although they may be 
nearly normal physically, have never developed mentally 
beyond the 10, 9, 8, or 7-year level. Such persons cannot, 
of course, be expected ever to be able to compete in life 
with normal persons, or even to make a living for themselves 
if left unassisted. Many of those who are not cared for 
become criminals, prostitutes, paupers, or become socially 
degenerate in some other way. Among school children 
mental deficiency often expresses itself in the form of 
delinquency, 

THESE WASTE BOTH THE TEACHER's TIME AND THEIR OWN 

Feeble-minded children are not always vicious. Often 
their temperament is such that their teachers and friends 
are inclined to overlook their mental deficiency, and good 
conduct and obedience are mistaken for intelligence. 

Clara F.,^ for example, is 15 years of age. She is in the 

* Names used here are fictitious. 



2i6 School Organizatiofi and Administration 

seventh grade, and has been making such slow progress that 
the teacher had become discouraged with her. She was ex- 
amined, and found to have a mentaHty of 103^ years. Be- 
cause she has been a " good plodder " and has presented no 
difficulty in discipline, she was not considered feeble-minded, 
or even much below normal. In fact, she has long since 
reached the grade of work possible for one of her level of 
intelligence, and it is a waste of time and an injustice to the 
child to keep her in the regular school any longer. Much 
of the teacher's time has been taken from the already too 
large class in futile attempts to teach her things which she 
cannot learn, and which would be of little use to her if she 
could retain them. Clara should be in an institution or 
colony for the feeble-minded, where she could be taught at 
least how to do housework of the simpler kinds, where she 
will not be a burden upon those who have her in charge, and 
where normal children will not be neglected in order that 
she may be instructed. 

Numerous other examples just as striking have been 
found in the schools. Some of them, of whom space does 
not permit further description, are as follows : 

George B Age 15, mentality 8. In Grade 4. 

Francis A Age 10, mentality 8. In Grade i. 

Amy C Age 15, mentality g}4- In Grade 7. 

Vema K Age 12, mentality 10. In Grade 3. 

Everett D Age 13, mentality g}4- In Grade 4. 

Ernest L Age 12^, mentality 9. In Grade 2. 

All of these children are either feeble-minded or border- 
line cases, and none of them should be in the regular grades 
with normal children. 

NUMBER OF SUCH FOUND IN EVERY CITY 

It is generally estimated that in any city the number of 
feeble-minded children is between 2 and 3 per cent, of the 
entire school enrollment. Probably the latter number is a 
safer estimate. Although there is reason to believe that 



Progress of Children Through the Schools 217 

the average intelligence among the population of Salt Lake 
City may be slightly above that of the average city, on ac- 
count of the freedom from slums, etc., yet the number of 
feeble-minded children in the city cannot be much below 
3 per cent, of the school enrollment. The number is some- 
what increased by the lack of state facilities for the care of 
mental defectives. 

We may be reasonably certain that there are not less than 
600 children in the public schools who are mentally retarded 
to such a degree that no amount of teaching can ever make 
them normal. In addition to these there are many more 
children who are mentally retarded to a less degree, but 
are still so far from average-normal that in classes with 
normal children they are likely to receive little benefit. It is 
these children who are the direct cause of much of the 
school retardation in the city. 

Apparently the problem has been recognized, and an 
attempt has been made to solve it. For this attempt, al- 
though inadequate, the city is to be commended. Provision 
for backward children has been made ( i ) by the ungraded 
school, and (2) by ungraded classes. 



THE UNGRADED SCHOOL 

This now occupies one of the oldest school buildings in 
the city. The school consists of five teachers and a princi- 
pal. There are five rooms, and about 90 children were be- 
longing at the time of the survey. The usual enrollment is 
about 100. The building is very poorly lighted, and the 
heating and ventilating facilities are worse than should be 
tolerated in any school. The principal's office occupies a 
basement room, which can be directly entered only through a 
back door. The conditions in the schoolrooms are no better. 
The property on which the building stands is of relatively 
high value, however, and since, with adequate transporta- 
tion facilities, the location is of secondary importance, it 



2i8 School Organization and Administration 

is probable that the land could be sold for a fig-nre which 
would apply substantially toward a new building on a less 
expensive site. 

The children are given individual attention, especially in 
the subjects in which they seem to be the most backward. 
The principal is a university graduate in psychology, and 
is qualified to give mental tests and to judge the intelligence 
of the children. During the past four years he has made 
about go such examinations. He is frequently called upon 
to examine children in the regular schools to determine their 
degree of defectiveness or backwardness, and to advise 
principals and teachers concerning the proper placing of cer- 
tain children who offer difficulties of instruction or 
discipline. 



MISTAKEN AIM OF THE UNGRADED SCHOOL 

For the most part, the teachers in the ungraded school 
are energetic and interested. None have had special train- 
ing for this work, however, although some are contemplat- 
ing this for the present summer. Little manual training is 
taught, and the chief aim has been to instruct children in the 
subjects in which they are the most deficient, with a view 
to their being placed again in the grades. 

To make this the aim of the ungraded school is mislead- 
ing. Although it is a splendid thing for children who are 
slightly backward in arithmetic, for example, to be specially 
assisted in making up their particular difficulties, this is not 
what the ungraded school should be doing. Fully 75 per 
cent, of the pupils in the school are mentally so far below 
normal that they will not be able, even with this special in- 
struction, to " make up " their grades and continue there- 
after to make normal progress. Practically all of those now 
enrolled in the school, and many more who should be en- 
rolled when provisions are made for a larger ungraded 
school, are in need of continued special-class work. Teach- 



Progress of Children Through the Schools 219 

ers and principals should not be deluded by thinking that 
children are normal because the special class has improved 
them. 



PROPER TRAINING FOR SUCH PUPILS 

When the state legislature makes adequate provision for 
the care of the feeble-minded, the public schools will be 
relieved of many of their defective children. This it should 
do without further delay. There will still be need for the 
special school, however. Probably none of the border-line 
and dull-normal cases will be removed, and there will always 
be many of the higher grade feeble-minded children who 
must be trained in the public schools. There should be a 
special school of not less than 15 teachers, equipped not for 
average children as in other schools, but especially for chil- 
dren whose minds have not developed normally. This 
should include, first of all, material for manual work. In 
no other line can defective children be trained to any degree 
of usefulness. It is folly to waste much of their time in 
reading, arithmetic, etc., beyond the work of the lower 
grades. While it may happen frequently that feeble-minded 
children can retain, for a short time, some of the things they 
have been taught in these subjects, it is far from efficient to 
learn things which can never be used. Backward and feeble- 
minded children can be trained in manual work, however, 
and in some cities and institutions much has been done in 
this line which has added to their happiness and usefulness. 

THE SO-CALLED UNGRADED ROOMS 

Another method which has been used in dealing with re- 
tarded pupils is that of the ungraded room. There are at 
present six teachers giving full time in ungraded rooms. 
Four teachers of domestic science are giving approximately 
half-time to this work. In several schools, the ungraded 
room has been discontinued for financial reasons. 



2 20 School Organization and Administration 

In reality, these rooms are not ungraded rooms at all. 
In fact, the children who make use of them are enrolled in 
the regular grades, and one or more periods of thirty min- 
utes each are given to their special instruction in the subject 
or subjects which present the most difficulty. A large num- 
ber of children can be " coached " in this manner, and one 
teacher reported a class of 70 pupils per day. 

The following is the daily schedule of one of these 
classes : 



9.00 to g.30 


Arithmetic 7B. 


g.30 to 10.00 


Reading 2B. 


10.00 to 10.30 


Aritlimetic 5B. 


10.30 to 10.45 


Recess. 


10.45 to 11.00 


Reading and Phonics 3B, 


11.00 to 11.30 


Reading 6B. 


11.30 to 12.00 


Grammar 7A. 


1. 00 to 1.40 


Geography 7B. 


1.40 to 2.10 


Arithmetic 6B. 


2.10 to 2.20 


Unassigned time. 


2.20 to 2.30 


Recess. 


2.30 to 3.05 


Grammar 8B. 


3.0s to 3.30 


Grammar 9 and 7. 


3.00 to 3.30 


Reading 4 A. 


IN REALITY " BATAVIA " ROOMS 



This form of special instruction is similar to what is 
known as the " Batavia plan." While this work is of ex- 
treme importance to every school, and furnishes much re- 
lief to teachers, it is by no means a correct substitute for 
the special class for backward children. Quite naturally, 
children who are backward or subnormal mentally are most 
commonly sent to these classes, and the writer has ob- 
served many feeble-minded children wlio have been sent to 
these Batavia teachers with the expectation that they could 
discover in what subjects they were in need of the greatest 
attention. In one case, the teacher pointed out a boy who 
had been retained in one of these classes for two years. In 
any school, even if made up entirely of normal children, 



Progress of Children Through the Schools 221 

there is a place for this work ; but it is unfortunate that it 
has been instituted instead of the much-needed special 
rooms, where the teacher may devote all her time to chil- 
dren who are mentally subnormal. In nearly every school 
in the city there is need for such a class. 

As in the ungraded school, none of the teachers of these 
rooms have had special training, and it is not surprising 
that there is no one in such schools who can recognize feeble- 
minded children. None have made use of tests for this pur- 
pose. This, of course, is a serious handicap in the conduct 
of an ungraded room, or any form of special class work. 

WHAT IS NEEDED 

To what extent the school retardation has been affected 
by the presence of subnormal children cannot be determined 
to an exact figure. To do this, it would be necessary to 
examine the mental condition of each retarded pupil, and 
to inquire into the other conditions which might have been 
responsible for his slow progress. Many cities are intro- 
ducing research departments where this and other impor- 
tant work can be carried on. Little of value can be deter- 
mined except by continued scientific investigation. 

About 9 per cent., or 1,570 pupils in the city schools, are 
repeating their grades one or more times. This means that 
the city is expending more than $90,000 per year for re- 
peated instruction. Calculating on the basis of the amount 
paid each year for teachers' salaries alone, $4,000 per year 
is paid directly for this repeated instruction. This sum rep- 
resents the salaries of 50 teachers at $800 each. This 
$40,000 would provide: 

15 teachers in a special school; 

15 additional teachers in ungraded rooms; each receiving 
a salary of not less than $1,200. These 30 teachers could re- 
lieve the regular classes of 450 subnormal children, allow- 
ing each teacher 15 special pupils. The value of this to the 
schools, and to the happiness and usefulness of these pupils, 



222 School Organization and Admiitistration 

need not be reiterated. To say nothing of these, the change 
is justified from a purely business standpoint. 



THE PRINCIPAL OF SUCH A SCHOOL 

The principal of the ungraded school should be a psychol- 
ogist. This the city has already recognized. He should 
have jurisdiction, not only over the ungraded school of 15 
teachers, but over all of the special class work in the city. 
In the latter, he would have the cooperation of the school 
principals. He should be given a clerical assistant to relieve 
him of routine office duties, in which otherwise he would 
lose much valuable time, and should devote at least one-half 
of each day to research work and investigation into such 
problems as retardation. Under his direction all retarded 
and greatly accelerated pupils should be examined, and the 
records permanently kept in the laboratory, which sliould be 
provided in the ungraded school. In a single year records 
of the intelligence of the 600 subnormal children in the 
schools could be made. The amount of retardation could 
be greatly reduced, by the proper placing of pupils, and by 
the additional assistance rendered to the health officers in 
the diagnosis of cases. 



UNGRADED ROOMS FOR THE DIFFERENT SCHOOLS 

In each school provision should be made for at least one 
real ungraded room. This is particularly important in plan- 
ning new school buildings. The following are the salient 
points in the construction of a standard ungraded room : ^ 

1. The room should be well lighted and ventilated. 

2. Not more than 15 children should be provided for. 

3. The room should be approximately 30 x 40 feet in 
size. 

* Goddard, H. H., School Training of Defective Children. New York, 1914. 



Progress of Children Through the Schools 223 

4. The windows should be adjustable, so that an open- 
air room can be made. 

5. The walls should be of a neutral tint. 

6. Instead of school desks, movable tables and chairs of 
various sizes should be provided. 

7. There should be 8 work benches for manual training. 

8. There should be cupboards and cases for the display 
and keeping of work. 

9. The walls should be provided with plenty of black- 
boards, built low, so that they can be reached by the smallest 
pupils. 

10. A bathroom or shower should adjoin the room. 

11. There should be equipment for training in practical 
housework. This should be the essential equipment of a 
home, including a bed, stove, dishes, etc. 

12. Books, play apparatus, etc., should be available. 

It is obvious that such a room is not meant for the teach- 
ing of reading, writing, arithmetic, etc., except in an inci- 
dental manner. Trained teachers in charge of these rooms, 
under the supervision of an expert, will know to what ex- 
tent the minds of the children are capable of each kind of 
work, and the instruction of each child will follow accord- 
ingly. As has already been pointed out, the greatest success 
with subnormal children has been obtained by placing em- 
phasis upon manual work of a practical sort. 



EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN 

Although the greater portion of this chapter has been 
devoted to the problem of backward and subnormal children, 
there are other ways in which children may vary from the 
average, and for these special attention is just as necessary. 
Often the importance of the problem of retardation over- 
shadows this fact, and these children are neglected. 

There are many children whose minds have developed 
more rapidly than those of average children, and whose 



2 24 School Organization and Administration 

intelligence is such that they are capable of work which or- 
dinary children cannot do at the same age. In some cases 
such children have been promoted to a grade or more be- 
yond that in which they would be according to actual age. 
Some have been allowed to " skip " grades. Often the in- 
telligence of these children is underestimated, and still more 
often teachers and parents are prevented by tradition and 
custom from allowing them to go beyond the work which 
seems to be suitable to their ages. On the other hand, 
parents not infrequently insist that a child is capable of 
advancement, when the school records plainly show that 
he is not. 

Here again psychological tests are of great assistance. 
With the child's mental age known, teachers, parents, and 
principals will not need to rely upon personal opinion, and 
the child's course can be based upon scientific facts. 



TYPICAL CASES FOUND 

The following cases are representative of school children 
of superior mentality. Both of these, and many others, 
were examined during the progress of the survey. 

Lucile R. — Age 13. Mentality about 16. Is in the seventh grade. With 
special instruction for a time could be doing the work of the second year in high 
school. Temperamentally pleasant, and much devoted to her work. In good 
health, not nervous, and offers no special difficulty, except that the work of the 
seventh grade is too easy for her. Is from a home where less than average op- 
portunities are available. Father "does not believe" in high-school training, 
and expects to remove Lucile from school when she has completed the eighth 
grade. 

George N. — Age 9. Mentality about 13. Is in fourth grade. From an 
average home. Has been well trained in politeness and obedience. Could be 
doing the work of which any normal child of 12 or 13 years would be capable. 
In excellent physical condition. 

We little know what immense possibilities lie in these and 
other gifted children. Many cases of this kind are on rec- 
ord, and too often insufficient attention is given in the con- 



Progress of Children Through the Schools 225 

servation of these possibilities. In some instances, capa- 
bilities just as remarkable have been found, but in some 
special direction, such as music, art, etc. It is of the great- 
est importance that children who early in life show such 
ability should be educated according to their levels of intelli- 
gence, rather than be held back with other children of the 
same age. 

THE PROBLEM OF DELINQUENCY 

This is fundamentally a problem for the public schools to 
handle. Many boys and girls are now in our reforma- 
tories and juvenile institutions who might have been saved 
through vocational guidance and other provisions which the 
public schools should have made for them. It is generally 
recognized that the feeble-minded child is a potential de- 
linquent. The minds of these children will always remain 
like those of young children, and consequently they will 
have neither the ability nor the desire to resist the tempta- 
tions which cause their downfall. Even some children of 
normal mentality are weak in will power, or have emotional 
characteristics which lead to crime. 

In 1910 there were 25,000 children in institutions for de- 
linquents. Of these, 14,000 had been committed in less 
than one year. Not less than one-third of these are feeble- 
minded; and not less than one-half are mentally retarded 
to such a degree that this deficiency would account for their 
delinquency. There are fully 12,000 who do not belong 
where they have been placed, and for whom no form of 
punishment can be of great benefit. Many, when released, 
will again enter lives of crime, and will spend many of their 
later years in prison. Hence the responsibility of the public 
school in the classification and guidance of children who 
exhibit these tendencies. 



226 School Organization and Administration 



SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS 

As a result of the studies recorded in this chapter the 
following recommendations are made : 

1. That a new special school, for ungraded work, be 
erected. This should contain not less than 15 rooms, and 
20 would be a better number. 

2. That the principal of the ungraded school be given 
such clerical assistance as to permit him to direct the work 
of the psychological laboratory, and to have direction over 
all ungraded rooms in the city. 

3. That there be established not less than 15 ungraded 
rooms in regular schools, in addition to the Batavia teaching 
which is now provided for. It would be still better if at 
least one such room were provided in connection with each 
large school in the city. 

4. That trained teachers be secured for this ungraded 
school work. 

5. That no ungraded room contain more than 15 pupils 
permanently enrolled. 

6. That in providing for ungraded rooms, especially in 
new buildings, the plan of the standard room, as outlined 
by Dr. Goddard, be followed as closely as possible. 

7. That special classes, wherever practicable, be estab- 
lished for gifted children, or that some plan be adopted by 
means of which they may make more rapid progress through 
the course of study. 

8. That greater attention be given to the problem of 
children who show evidences of becoming socially 
undesirable. 



PART III 

Buildings and Health 



CHAPTER X 
THE SCHOOL PLANT i 

THE PRESENT BUILDINGS 

OF the 34 buildings at present in use, 30 belong to an 
obsolete type of school architecture. The heating, 
lighting, and ventilation of most of these buildings are 
unsatisfactory. Tliere are not enough classrooms to accom- 
modate the children. Dark, damp, and dingy basement 
rooms which are unfit for human occupancy arc used as 
classrooms, as are also poorly lighted and ill-ventilated halls. 
Many of the rooms used for domestic science are objection- 
able, both from the hygienic and the aesthetic point of view. 
There are hardly any assembly rooms. There are no school 
baths in any primary or grammar grade school. The toilet 
arrangements are in many cases unsanitary and unsightly. 
The janitor service is partly good and partly bad. A few 
of the sites are not well suited to school purposes, and in 
the case of more than half the schools the playground space 
is inadequate. These and other items relating to the school 
plant warrant individual treatment in this report. 

THE SCHOOL SITES 

A school is not properly located when it is in too close 
proximity to railroads, car lines, streets, noisy factories, 
saloons, or other otherwise morally objectionable places. 
It is also necessary, in selecting a school site, to take account 
of possible shifts of population and of possible objectionable 
changes which may later take place in the environment. 
Above all, playgrounds of adequate size should be obtained 

^ Chapters X, XI, and XII were written by Professor Lewis M. Terman. — 

PtJBLISHERS. 

229 



230 School Organization and Administration 

before the increase in value of the surrounding real estate 
renders this prohibitive. 

Little adverse criticism can be made as to the location of 
the school sites except in two or three cases. Two railroad 
lines within a block of the Lincoln building detract from 
this site, and a few others are located rather closer to street- 
car lines than is desirable. 

There is no school located where the surrounding popula- 
tion seems likely to decrease to a point which would render 
the building or any part of it unnecessary. Unfortunately, 
however, there has not always been sufficient foresight in 
anticipating the increase of needs incident to the growth of 
population. Many of the school sites are so small as to 
make it impossible to locate the buildings the requisite dis- 
tance from the street, or to provide playground facilities 
for the children. 

SIZE OF SCHOOL GROUNDS 

In a city no larger and no more crowded than Salt Lake 
City, a school site ought to contain not less than 200 square 
feet for each child. This rule will require about five acres 
for a site which may reasonably be expected sometime to 
accommodate 1,000 to 1,200 pupils. In order to provide 
for possible increases in attendance and enlargement of 
buildings, every new school site provided ought to contain, 
if possible, not less than five acres. The very minimum 
which should be regarded permissible, even in a large city, 
is 100 square feet of playground space for each child. 
Even the city of London has made this amount the legal 
minimum. 

The figures of Table XXXIX show how far many of the 
Salt Lake City school grounds fall below the minimum. 
The figures given are based on the entire area of the school 
site, inclusive of the ground on which the building is lo- 
cated.^ If the area of the building had been deducted the 
figures would have been in most cases very greatly reduced. 



The School Plant 



231 



TABLE XXXIX 

Size of Present School Sites 
Group I. Less than 100 sq. ft. per Child 



School 


Enrollment 


Sq. ft. 
per Child 


Emerson 


1,090 

783 
302 
724 
352 
853 
615 
615 
780 
710 


40 
69 
74 
75 
77 
84 
88 


Grant 


Fremont 


Oquirrh 

Longfellow 


Lafayette 

Lowell 


Franklin 


93 
95 
96 


Wasatch 


Hamilton 



Total enrollment in this group: 6,824. 





Group II. 


100 


to 


12,0 sq 


fl.p 


er Child 




School 


Enrollment 


Sq. ft. 
per Child 


Webster 

Sumner 

Lincoln 

Forest 


719 
756 
450 
560 
760 
417 


102 
108 
112 
129 
129 
130 


Jefiferson 

Poplar Grove 





Total enrollment of Group II: 3,602. 





Group III. 


170 to 200 sq. ft. per Child 




School 


Enrollment 


Sq. ft. 
per Child 


Jackson 

Riverside 

Irving 


802 
820 
291 
320 


171 
189 
189 
200 


Monroe 



Total enrollment of Group III: 2,233. 



232 School Organization and Administration 



TABLE XXXIX. — CowiJMMed 
Group IV. Above 200 sq. ft. per Child 



School 



Sq. ft. 
per Child 




Washington 

Onequa 

Ensign . . 

East High 

Bonneville 

Hawthorne 

Bryant . . 

West High 

Whittier 

Twelfth 

Training 



Total enrollment of Group IV: 5,668. 



31% 




\?,% 


-.z\ 


Z0% 


1 



OVER 200 SQ.FT. PCRCHILD 
170-200 SQ.FT. PER CHILD 
100-130 SQ.FT. PER CHILD 

LESS THAN 100 SQ.FIPERCfllLD 



Fig. 37. Showing Percentage of Children Having Playgrounds 
OF Various Sizes 



The School Plant 233 

The preceding diagram shows the percentage distribution 
of children among the sites of these four sizes. 

It is a pleasure to note that the last three buildings 
erected, Whittier, Hawthorne, and East High, all have 
ample grounds. This is also true of the two now being 
built in the vicinity of East High School, but it is not true 
of Jefferson, which was erected only five years ago. 

Nowhere else in the school system is forethought more 
important than in the selection of well-located and ample 
sites, in anticipation of future needs. Blessings or tragedy 
hang upon the choice. Some of the cramped sites listed 
above could not now be enlarged except at prohibitive cost. 
In the case of others, additions are still feasible and ought 
to be made at the earliest possible moment. 

WASTE OF SPACE IN BUILDINGS 

Some or all of the classrooms or halls in nearly every 
building have an excess of floor space, and the ceilings of 
practically all the buildings are from i^ to 2^ feet higher 
than the standard. This is true to a certain extent even in 
the new buildings, excepting the East High and the Haw- 
thorne School. The best size for a classroom is 22 x 28 
feet, with a 12-foot ceiling. The greatest size permissible 
is 24 X 2)^ feet, with a 13-foot ceiling. Classrooms of 30 x 
33 or 30 X 30, with a ceiling of 14 feet, are almost the rule 
in Salt Lake City. Measurements of the floor area of all 
the classrooms in the city, which were made by the teachers 
at the request of the sui'vey, gave the facts set forth in 
Eigure 38. 

The intent of such construction was doubtless that of 
giving children and teachers ample room for carrying on 
their work. The result, however, is a building which in 
many respects is far from satisfactory for the work of the 
school. A classroom needlessly large is more costly to heat, 
and usually not as well lighted. The children in the rear 
seats have to strain their eyes to see v/hat is written on the 



234 School Organization and Administration 

blackboard, and the teacher has to strain her voice to make 
it fill the room. Order is more difficult to maintain. More- 
over, the large room offers a constant temptation to enlarge 
classes beyond the point where good teaching is possible. 




Fig. 38. Showing Percentage of Schoolrooms Having Various 

Areas 

Those having the standard area are shown in white; the others represent schoolrooms which 
are larger than is necessary. 



THE RESULT OF SUCH EXCESS 

The cost of such excess space is no mean item. A room 
30 X 30 has nearly 50 per cent, more floor space than the 
standard room of 22 x 28, and one of 27 x 30 has an excess 



The School Plant 235 

floor area of about 25 per cent. A room 30 x 30, with a 
1 4- foot ceiling, has 70 per cent, excess of cubical contents 
as compared with one which is 22 x 28 x 12; or an excess 
of 56 per cent, as compared with one 24 x 28 x 12. The 
cost of a schoolroom is roughly (though not exactly) in 
proportion to its cubical contents, and the cost of building 
400 schoolrooms having an average excess of 30 per cent, 
in cubical contents above the standard has certainly involved 
a waste of more than half a million dollars. 

The practical outcome of extravagance in space is likely 
to be the omission of much-needed special rooms and equip- 
ment, and we are now in better position to understand why, 
in the schools of Salt Lake City, the domestic-science work 
is usually relegated to some dingy corner which is unfit 
for regular class purposes ; why manual training must so 
often be carried on by artificial light; why there are no 
assembly rooms ; why toilet arrangements are so inadequate 
and cheap ; why there is not a single bath or a single nurse's 
room in the primary or grammar schools ; why approxi- 
mately 2,000 children are compelled to attend school in dark 
cellars. Reasonable economy in school planning would 
have supplied most if not all of these unfortunate omissions. 

Much space is also wasted in halls. Instead of the stand- 
ard width of 12 to 14 feet, a width of 16 to 24 feet is 
found in a majority of the buildings. The Washington 
and Lowell schools have each two halls approximately 24 x 
100 feet. The wasted space would have given each school 
four or five additional classrooms, or a commodious as- 
sembly room. 

LIGHTING 

The following is a statement of the cardinal laws of 
school lighting, and of the departures therefrom in the 
schools of Salt Lake City : 

I. The light should enter from one side of the classroom 
only, and at the pupils' left. 

If it enters from two sides there are sure to be annoying 



236 School Organization and Administration 

cross-lights in certain parts of the room, and if there are 
windows in the rear the teacher is compelled to face a direct 
light. This is trying to the nerves and injurious to the 
health. 

The following table shows existing conditions in the Salt 
Lake City school buildings : 

TABLE XL 

The Lighting of Salt Lake City Schoolrooms 

Lighted from left only 96 rooms (Standard method) 

Lighted from left and rear 250 rooms 

Lighted from right and rear 3 rooms 

Lighted from left and right ....... 3 rooms 

Lighted from right only 2 rooms I All incorrectly 

Lighted from rear only i room lighted 

Lighted on three sides 46 rooms 

Lighted partly from front 39 rooms 

More than half of light from rear .... 120 rooms 

From this table it is seen that less than 22 per cent, of the 
rooms are lighted from the proper direction, and over 88 
per cent, are improperly lighted. Even the buildings erected 
four or five years ago (Jefferson, Poplar Grove, and the 
new parts of Riverside and Wasatch) have a large propor- 
tion of their rooms lighted from two sides. 68.2 per cent, 
of all the teachers in the city are compelled to face light 
entering from the rear windows. In 27.3 per cent, of the 
rooms, more than half the light enters from the rear. Ques- 
tioned as to the effects on health resulting from facing the 
light, yy teachers stated that ill effects had been experienced, 
and 15 of these stated that the health had been seriously 
injured in this way. 

It must not be inferred that the 22 per cent, of rooms hav- 
ing light on the left only are properly lighted. As a matter 
of fact, hardly any of them are. Some of them are lighted 
from the north or south, some have too little window space, 
others have windows placed too far forward. 



The School Plant 237 

2. The building should be so oriented that the zvindows 
of each classroom are on the east or west side, not the north 
or south. 

Rooms lighted from the north are too dark on cloudy- 
days and are less healthful than rooms which receive 
direct sunlight a part of the day. If the room is lighted 
from the south, however, the direct sunlight enters during 
the entire school day and, falling on the desks of pupils, is 
annoying and injurious to the eyes. In such cases the 
shades are likely to be drawn until the light admitted is too 
small in amount, and badly distributed. A possible excep- 
tion in favor of south lighting may be made in the case of 
kindergarten rooms, but in no other classrooms. 

In Salt Lake City no rational attention seems to have 
been given to the matter of orientation, previous to the last 
three or four buildings erected. If anything, south lighting 
seems to have been preferred. The Washington and Lowell 
schools were evidently planned with the idea of giving the 
sun direct access to as many rooms as possible throughout 
the day. On the other hand, there are dozens of rooms in 
the city which never get a ray of direct sunlight, and some 
of these rooms are in damp basements. 

The only way to secure the proper orientation of class- 
rooms is to construct long, narrow school buildings, run- 
ning north and south. Those of Salt Lake City are pre- 
dominantly of the square type, with eight to twelve corner 
rooms lighted on one side and rear and a number of side 
rooms in between the corner rooms. The side rooms are 
lighted in about equal number from the north, east, south, 
or west. 

3. The windozv space shoidd be between 20 per cent, 
and 25 per cent, of the door space. 

The following tabular statement shows the number of 
rooms having various percentages of window space as com- 
pared with floor space : 



23S School Organization and Administration 

iQ have less IIkiii loiurccnt y 

54 have l)cl ween 10 and 15 per cent I Below standard 

154 liave between 15 and 20 per cent J 

\\i) have between 20 and 25 |)er cent Standard 

72 have 25 per cent, or more Aljove standard 

Figure 3() shows llic s.-inic f.'icts graphically. 




I'iG. 30. SuowiNc I'udroiMioN or ("l.A^;su()<)MS IIavinc Sin'i'uiKNr and 
Insiii'I'Kii;nt Window Aki;a in I'Koi'OKrioN to I'Look Si-ack 

(Twriily |>iT rent, is lakcii as llu; luiniiniim standard) 

While these lignrcs show that a niunher of rooms arc 
seriously (leHeienl in liohiino- area, it is seen that nearly 
half are generously sii|>|)lie(l with windows. Taken alone, 



The School Plant 239 

however, (lu'sc fii^'iiri's arc niislcadiiijj^. A room may Iiave 
more (Iiaii llic standaid amount of vviiidovv space and still 
l)e hadly lii^litcd, owinj;' to such factors as the improper 
location of windows, north orii-nlation, unsuitable col<»rs 
for walls and ccilinj^, the impi"(»pcr use of window shades, 
or the i)resence of trees, huildiuj^s, or other li^ht ohstrue- 
tious near the windows. 'These are the critical factors in 
the seh(j(jl lij^htiuj^' of Salt Lake City, and in by far tin; 
larg-er proportion (d' rooms they more than offset tin- ad 
vanlaj^es of liberal window si)ace. No fewer than 1 p) 
of the 440 rooms, or 33 per cent., have trees, walls, or 
other lij^ht obstructions within 50 feet of the windows 
and as hi^li as the? tops of tin? wiixlows. 'This is also true 
for 72 of the 151 rooms which have a window area below 
standard. 

4. 1 he windows should no I extend loivcr Hum j^y^ feci 
from the floor, and they should rcaeh innthin a few inehes 
of the eeiliui^. They should lu'i^in ivif/iin /«V inehes of the 
rear end of the left wall, and al>l>roaeh no closer than 7 (tr (V 
feel to Hie front of the room. 

The purpose of these rules is to control the direction from 
which the lij^ht shall come. The only lii;ht which does any 
j^ood is that which strikes the pupil's book, and at an anj^le 
not too acute. LijL;hl which sli'ikes the |)Upirs eyes directly 
is not only of no value, btil actually i)revents clear vision. 

In this city the bottom of the windows is usually about the 
rij.,dit height from the lloor, but there is often too mueh 
dead wall space above Ihc top. A fai" worse fault, however, 
and a more common one, is the improper distribution of 
windows alonj.];- the side of the room. Iwen in the few 
rooms which are lighted entirely from the left there is ordi- 
narily too much dead wall S])ace behind the back window, 
and too little in front of the front window. That is, the 
window area as .a whole is placed too far forward. Archi- 
tects are prone to do this in order to seciu'e .symmetry, but 
it should in no case be permitted. ICven the la.st l)uildinj:|^s 
constructed in Salt Lake City have this fault in practically 



240 School Organization and Administration 

every room. In many rooms the li<:^hting would be better 
if the front window were kept permanently shaded. 

5. The windoivs should be separated by mullions not 
much more than eight inches zmde. This is to prevent 
troublesome wedges of shadow caused by the dead space 
between the windows. The rule is broken in nearly every 
schoolroom of the city. Often the wall space between the 
windows is three to five feet wide, and the pupils who sit in 
the shadows thus produced are greatly handicapped. 

6. The color of the walls shotdd be a light buff or a very 
light green, and that of the ceiling should be white or an 
extremely light cream. 

The reason for this rule is obvious. Dark walls and ceil- 
ings absorb the light instead of reflecting it upon the desks. 
A very light buff reflects nearly twice as much light as a 
medium shade of green. 

The wall and ceiling colors prevailing in Salt Lake City 
are several shades tf)0 dark. Many a room which would be 
otherwise reasonably light and inviting is given a dark, 
dismal, and cheerless aspect. This effect is often enhanced 
by blackened streaks of dirt and smoke which have come 
from the inlet ducts of tlie ventilating system. Five min- 
utes in some of tliese worst rooms is positively depressing. 

A serious mistake has been made in adopting a uniform 
color scheme for all the schools. Badly lighted rooms should 
have walls and ceiling practically white. Many of the base- 
ment rooms and others which are objectionable as regards 
lighting could have their light almost doubled by proper 
color treatment. It is strongly urged that practically all 
the rooms in the city, except in the latest schools, be retinted 
at once, and under the direction of some one who under- 
stands the needs of a classroom. 

7. Windozv shades, when used at all, sJiould be translu- 
cent, and their use should be regulated by definite rules to 
be followed by all the teachers. 

Shades are necessary for south windows, but should ordi- 
narily not be permitted in rooms dej^ending solely on north 



The School Plant 



241 



light. Their use on east and west windows should be 
strictly regulated by rule. 

In this city the shades are uniformly bad, all being opaque, 
single, and fastened at the top of the window. They can- 
not be drawn, even part way, without cutting off the best 




Fig. 40. The "Bishop Harman" Photometer, Used in the Examina- 
tion OF THE Lighting of Schoolrooms 



light of the room ; namely, that which comes from the 
upper part of the window. What is worse, the teachers 
gave no evidence of having had any instruction in regard 
to the proper use of shades. In many rooms which would 
be too dark under the best conditions, and where no excuse 
exists for cutting off any of the light at any time, shades 
were found drawn clear to the bottom of the windows. In 



242 School Organization and Administration 

one room, about 16 x 30 feet in size, having only two win- 
dows and those directly behind the backs of the pupils, one 
window was found entirely darkened on a cloudy day. 

LIGHT TESTS 

Though the facts set forth above ought to be convincing, 
we are able to add the results of light tests in 32 rooms. A 
" Bishop Harriian " photometer was used. It is a photom- 
eter of recent English make, and is well adapted for the 
purpose. Table XLI on the following page gives the re- 
sults of the tests made. 

These tests were nearly all made while classes were 
in session. Window shades were left as they were found. 
The rooms selected for the tests are among the darkest in 
the city, but they do not include anything like all of those 
which are very badly lighted. 

About 10 per cent, of the schoolrooms in the city use 
artificial light a part of the time, and seven rooms all the 
time. The method of artificial lighting is unsatisfactory. 
The lights are not numerous enough, and they are usually 
not properly distributed. Often they are placed so that 
the light strikes the pupil directly in the face. The light 
shades are also unsatisfactory. If the walls and ceilings 
were of a lighter color it would perhaps be preferable to 
use the indirect system where artificial lighting is necessary. 

HEATING 

While the heating plants in general use would seem to 
be well suited to the climate and the type of school build- 
ings, there are individual rooms in many buildings which, 
according to the statements of principals and teachers, are 
not properly heated. The following are some of the chief 
complaints voiced: Not enough heat (Monroe, Franklin, 
Lincoln, Freemont, and West High) ; heat not well dis- 
tributed (Hamilton, Irving, Lowell, and Sumner); heat 



The School Plant 



243 



, TABLE XLI 

Showing Results of Light Tests on Darkest Desk of 32 Classrooms 



Name of School 



No. of 
Room 



Time 
of Day 



Weather 
Conditions 



Light in 
Foot Can- 
dles (Min. 
permissi- 
ble is 9 
foot 
candles) 



Lincoln 6 

Lincoln 7 

Lincoln i 

Lincoln 5 

Riverside 

Webster 

Webster 

Grant 

Grant 

Longfellow 

Longfellow 

Longfellow 

Longfellow 

Franklin 

Franklin 

Franklin 

Franklin 

Poplar Grove 

Bryant 

Bryant 

Bryant 

Lowell 

Monroe 

Monroe 

Monroe 

Lafayette 

Lafayette 

Lafayette 

Lafayette 

Jackson NoPbasem't 

Fremont No? 



5 
C 

9 

S 
2 

5 

7 

12 

3 



4 

3 

3 

5 

7 

3 

29 

As'ly 
36 



II. 15 

11.20 

11.25 

11.30 

2.30 

3.00 

3.10 

2.00 

2.10 

2.00 

2.10 

2-15 

2.20 
3.00 
3.10 

315 
3.20 

330 
11.30 
11.40 

"•45 
11.00 
340 
3-45 
3-50 
3-iS 
3.20 

3-25 

3-30 

10.00 

11.00 



partly cloudy 
partly cloudy 
partly cloudy 
partly cloudj' 

cloudy 

cloudy 

cloudy 

cloudy 

cloudy 

cloudy 

cloudy 

cloudy 

cloudy 

cloudy 

cloudy 

cloudy 

cloudy 
partly cloudy 
partly cloudy 
partly cloudy 
partly cloudy 

clear 

clear 

clear 

clear 

clear 

clear 

clear 

clear 

clear 

clear 



244 School Organization and Administration 

especially unsatisfactory in basement (Franklin). Other 
complaints came from Bonneville, Jackson, Longfellow, 
Twelfth, and East High. 

Complaints based on the everyday experience of princi- 
pals and teachers do not, of course, give us the facts about 
the system which a heating engineer would want to know, 
but they do indicate in a general way whether faults exist. 
Only extended observation and tests by a qualified expert 
would give the remedy in each case. 

The best test of whether a heating plant is working sat- 
isfactorily is the simple one of making temperature records 
in each room of a building at successive hours of the school 
day. During the months of November and December, 
1914, and January, 191 5, the school nurses of Salt Lake 
City recorded thermometer readings in nearly all the rooms 
below the high schools. The temperature of each room 
that had a thermometer was recorded three different times, 
once in November, once in December, and again in January. 
In all, 1,157 records were made. These were placed at the 
disposal of the survey staff by the board of health, and 
their results are summarized in the following table : 

TABLE XLII 

Temperatures Found in Classrooms 

Readings below 60 degrees 14 or i per cent. 

Readings either 60 or 61 degrees 25 or 2 per cent. 

Readings either 62 or 63 degrees 56 or 4.8 per cent. 

Readings either 64 or 65 degrees 109 or 9 per cent. 

Readings either 66 or 67 degrees 160 or 13 per cent. 

(STANDARD) readings either 68 or 69 degrees .... 343 or 29 per cent. 

Readings either 70 or 71 degrees 248 or 21 per cent. 

Readings either 72 or 73 degrees 113 or 9 per cent. 

Readings either 74 or 75 degrees 61 or 5 per cent. 

Readings either 76 or 77 degrees 14 or i per cent. 

Readings either 78 or 79 degrees 7 or .6 per cent. 

Readings either 80 or above 7 or .6 per cent. 

If we call 68 to 69 degrees standard, it is seen that only 
29 per cent, of the records are entirely satisfactory. If we 



The School Plant 



245 



define standard as everything in the range from 66 degrees 
to 71 degrees, inclusive, we have 63 per cent, of the records 
satisfactory. Even on this liberal basis, considerably more 
than a third of the rooms were improperly heated at the 




Fig 41. Showing Frequency of Dlfferent Temperatures in Classrooms 



time the records were taken, and what was true on those 
days doubtless holds for most of the other days of the 
school year. Members of the survey staff repeatedly en- 
tered schoolrooms which had the stifling temperature of 75 
to 80 degrees. Judging from the records, we may conclude 
that more than 1,200 children (more exactly y.2 per cent. 



246 School Organization and Administration 

of the number attending) are daily subjected to suffocating 
temperatures above 74 degrees. It is little wonder that 20 
per cent, are subject to frequent colds, or that more than 
8 per cent, have chronic nose or throat trouble. (See 
Figure 43, page 291.) 

It is evident from the above facts that either the ther- 
mostats need some attention, or else the method of their 
supervision by janitors, and probably both. Professional 
training of janitors and strict supervision of their work by 
the school principals would doubtless materially increase 
the effectiveness of the heating systems. 

VENTILATION 

The plenum system, aspiration, and natural ventilation 
are almost equally employed. The East High School has 
the exhaust system. Those depending entirely on natural 
ventilation are Bonneville, Irving, Jordan, Forest and Whit- 
tier Annexes, Lake Breeze, Twelfth, and West High (main 
building). 

Although time was not available for making tests, the 
fact was evident that the ventilation of many of the schools 
could not be satisfactory. This is of course necessarily true 
of those buildings having only natural ventilation, and it is 
probably true of many of the others. There is no satis- 
factory system of ventilation for school buildings which 
does not employ some mechanical means of driving the air 
in as it is needed. The gravity system is satisfactory only 
when the temperature of the air outside the building is at 
least as low as thirty degrees. When the weather is warmer 
than this no gravity system ever devised will afford the 
desired circulation of air. Each child should be furnished 
with at least 2,000 cubic feet of air per hour (the standard 
for high-school pupils is 2,500 cubic feet per hour), and this 
is of course just as necessary in warm as in cold weather. 
In weather which is much above freezing, however, a build- 
ing which depends on the gravity system will have very 



The School Plant 247 

much less than the amount of air renewal. The efficiency 
of natural ventilation, which is doubtful at best, is also 
greatly reduced when the difference between the indoor and 
the outdoor temperature is not very great. 

Mechanical means are therefore necessary for accelerating 
the rate of air circulation. For this purpose either plenum 
or exhaust fans, or both, may be used. The exhaust sys- 
tem alone is never satisfactory, because of the impossibility 
of completely controlling the source of supply of fresh air. 
Leakage into the room occurs at doors and windows, and 
sometimes through the walls. Often air is sucked into the 
classrooms from basements, toilets, or other unwholesome 
quarters. Plenum fans are the only means of controlling 
the source of fresh air. 



OTHER FACTORS IN VENTILATION 

However, the installation of a plenum system does not of 
itself guarantee satisfactory ventilation. Other factors of 
great importance are size and location of both inlet and out- 
let ducts, location of main intake, size of fan, number, size, 
and location of aspiration flues, etc. The most common mis- 
take is that of making the inlet and outlet duct for each 
room so small that an adequate supply of air cannot be fur- 
nished without being driven in at too high a speed, causing 
a draft. If the ducts are not properly located there is no 
guarantee against short-circuiting or other failure of air 
circulation. If the main intake is located near the ground, 
or near a dusty street or playground, the air driven in is 
likely to be impure or dusty. The same result takes place 
if the fan room is not clean, or if it is not separated from 
the boiler room. If aspiration flues are employed these 
must be sufficiently numerous, and they must be properly 
located, high, and well heated to insure adequate circula- 
tion of air. 

All of the above are common faults in the ventilation of 
school buildings in Salt Lake City. In some buildings it 



248 School Organization and Administration 

is doubtful whether the mechanical system in use is very 
much more effective than natural ventilation would be. 
Complaints from teachers and principals come from build- 
ings with various types of ventilation. Among these are 
Franklin, Fremont, Wasatch, Hamilton, Jackson, Washing- 
ton, Onequa, Oquirrh, Sumner, and West High. 

POOR VENTILATION COMMON 

That imperfect ventilation is rather widespread is also 
indicated by 1,090 records taken by the nurses, who, when 
making the temperature records, also reported on the satis- 
factoriness of ventilation in each room. This was done in 
November, December, and again in January, for almost 
every schoolroom in the city. These records are based on 
the general impression made by the air of the rooms upon 
the nurses, and, while these are doubtless less trustworthy 
than tests would have furnished, they give at least a rough 
idea as to the quality of ventilation. These records show 
the ventilation as less than satisfactory in 42 per cent, of the 
rooms, and bad in 8.2 per cent. 

Ventilation "good" 638, or 58.5 per cent. 

Ventilation "fair" 362, or 38.2 per cent. 

Ventilation "poor" 90, or 8.3 per cent. 

The choice and control of a ventilating system is of 
course bound up with the question of heating. Neither in 
respect to heating nor ventilation is it possible to set forth 
in detail here the methods which should be followed. Nor 
should this be necessary. A superintendent of buildings, an 
engineer familiar with the latest developments in this line 
and clothed with the proper authority, could be depended 
upon both to correct the faults of the heating and ventilat- 
ing systems in use (as far as correction is possible) and to 
furnish expert advice in the planning of future buildings. 
It cannot be too strongly emphasized that these are mat- 
ters for the expert. No board of education is competent 



The School Plant 249 

to decide questions either of heating or ventilation, and ex- 
perience also proves that it is far from safe to leave the 
decision as to the system and details of arrangement entirely 
to the architect. 

It is recommended that in future buildings, and wher- 
ever possible in old buildings, air washers be installed. The 
discolored walls of very many rooms show that dirty air is 
being forced into the buildings. Air washers are not ex- 
pensive, and they prevent the breathing of much injurious 
dust. The prevalence of smoke in the atmosphere of Salt 
Lake City during certain months of the year renders their 
use more than ordinarily urgent in this city. This would 
also involve the humidification of the schoolroom air. At 
present no special effort is made in this line. Without 
proper humidifying apparatus the humidity of the air in 
the schoolroom is certain to be often as low as 15 to 25 
per cent., which is as dry as the air of Sahara Desert. Ex- 
cessive dryness of the air causes nervousness and restless- 
ness, and gives rise to nose and throat troubles. Even 
plants have a hard struggle to live in such an atmosphere. 

BASEMENT AND HALL CLASSROOMS 

In Salt Lake City there are seventy-four basement rooms 
used as regular classrooms, besides a few others which are 
used for special class purposes. Halls are also utilized for 
classes to the equivalent of forty-six classrooms. If the 
attendance in these basement and hall groups averages 30, 
which is probably a low estimate, it is seen that there are 
not far from 2,220 children who have no proper accommo- 
dation. This is more than 10 per cent, of the entire 
enrollment. 

While it may be possible to defend the use of a few of 
the best basement rooms, such as those at the Wasatch 
School, there is no questioning the fact that most of these 
underground rooms are unfit for school purposes. By far 
the majority of them are dark, gloomy, damp, and ill-ven- 



250 School Organization and Administration 

tilated. According to statements made by teachers and 
principals a number of them are also improperly heated. 
Some are so dark that artificial lighting is necessary, even 
on clear days. The amount of light on the darkest desk 
of some of these rooms was found, by actual measurement, 
to be less than one-fifth the minimum which should ever be 
permitted. 

It is unnecessary to argue the unfitness of such dismal 
and unhealthful cellar rooms for school purposes. A city 
which requires children to attend school in such quarters in- 
curs a grave responsibility. The children enrolled in tlie 
basement rooms are largely in the first and second grades 
and the kindergarten, the very children who are most sus- 
ceptible to injury from unwholesome physical environment. 
One may well wonder, too, whether such an environment 
does not have its subtle mental effects, and whether it tends 
to provoke on the part of children just entering school the 
right outlook upon things educational and the desired atti- 
tude toward them. 

THESE SHOULD BE ABANDONED 

Steps should be taken without delay to abandon the use 
of nearly all of the basement rooms. Many of them could 
be made over into baths, nurse's rooms, toilets, etc. Some, 
however, are hardly fit even for these purposes. In future 
buildings no basement rooms should be provided which 
could by any possibility be used for classes, except, under 
the right conditions, rooms for manual training or domestic 
science. We would emphasize the phrase " under right 
conditions." Most of the basement rooms now in use are 
unfit even for manual or domestic work. Most are so thor- 
oughly bad that it is hard to say which should be aban- 
doned first, but those of the following schools are among 
the worst: Jackson, Lincoln, Franklin, Sumner, Oquirrh, 
Lowell, and Washington. Other cases, however, are almost 
as urgent. 



The School Plant 251 

As already stated, forty-six class groups recite in hall- 
ways. The use of halls for class purposes is hardly less ob- 
jectionable than that of basements. Halls are less subject 
to dampness, but their lighting, heating, and ventilation are 
often as bad or worse. The danger from dust is much 
greater, and the noise is likely to be disturbing. On the 
whole, however, halls are to be preferred to basements when 
it is necessary to choose between two such undesirable evils. 

Better than either is the portable schoolhouse. If pro- 
vided in sufficient numbers to take the place of basements, 
though, these would seriously reduce the ground area avail- 
able for play, but in themselves they are far from bad. 
When the ceiling is painted white they are well lighted, and 
their ventilation can be made fairly satisfactory by means 
of the jacketed stove. Those now in use have ceilings too 
dark, and are overheated by a poor type of stove. Portables 
are likely to be uncomfortably warm in warm weather, and 
the floors are usually cold in winter. With all their faults, 
however, they are a great improvement over basement and 
hall rooms. 

SCHOOL DESKS 

The main requirements of school seating are: (i) that 
the seat should be the right height to permit the feet to rest 
easily on the floor ; (2) that the desk should be high enough 
to render stooping unnecessary, and low enough that the 
arms will not be unduly elevated; and (3) that the seat 
project under the edge of the desk two inches. There are 
other minor requirements, but these are the most essential. 

The first two rules cannot be followed unless each room 
contains adjustable desks to the extent of about 30 per cent, 
of the entire number, or at least three sizes of ordinary 
desks. It is never possible to fit all the children of a given 
room in seats of one size, because in practically every class 
the largest children are from eight inches to sixteen inches 
taller than the smallest. 



252 School Organization and Administration 

Of 440 rooms from which data were secured in this city, 
284, or 86 per cent., have no adjustable desks, and only 10 
per cent, have 10 or over. Even where adjustable desks 
have been supplied they are not always adjusted with the 
proper frequency and care. In 13 out of 45 rooms with 
adjustable desks the desks had not been adjusted since last 
December. At least twice a year should be the rule. In 
one case the principal was not even aware that certain desks 
were adjustable, and when his attention was called to the 
fact he was evidently surprised. The adjusting of desks 
seems to be left largely to the janitors, who, of course, 
know little or nothing about the requirements of school 
seating and are prone to neglect the matter. Many of the 
rooms lacking adjustable desks are equipped with desks of 
only one size. 

Whether the third rule is followed, namely that the seat 
should project at least two inches under the desk, depends 
entirely on the authority responsible for putting down the 
seats. It is of course as easy to set them correctly as in- 
correctly. Failure to follow the rule on this point inevitably 
causes round shoulders and cramped lungs. And yet, in 
Salt Lake City, the rule is uniformly and consistently 
broken. In more than 200 rooms visited by the writer there 
was hardly a desk correctly set. 

It is necessary to make one other criticism of the desks. 
Many of these look so old and worn that the attractiveness 
of the room is severely marred. The worst of these, unless 
they can be replaced by desks of a better type, ought to be 
refinished. 

In various respects most of the desks now in use belong 
to an obsolete type. In the future purchase of desks it is 
urged that careful study be made of some of the modern 
types which are more satisfactory from the hygienic point 
of view. Though it should go without saying, it needs to be 
emphasized that cheapness in school desks is not the main 
desideratum. 



The School Plant 253 



BLACKBOARDS 

The blackboard space in practically all the schools is gen- 
erous. The composition blackboard is the type in general 
use. This gives fairly satisfactory results if kept in repair, 
and if the room is not too damp. Except in the damp base- 
ment rooms, most of those seen were in reasonably good 
condition. The slate blackboard is to be preferred, but in 
setting it much care is necessary in order to prevent uneven 
joints. It is more costly, but more satisfactory in the long 
run. 

Blackboards should reach within 26 inches of the floor 
in the primary grades, and within 30 inches in the grammar 
grades. They were found from 4 to 6 inches too high in 
52 classrooms, and from 7 to 12 inches too high in 22 
classrooms. 

CLOAKROOMS 

Unsightly rows of coats and hats disfigure the halls of 
all the schools. In future buildings cloakrooms should be 
provided, one for each classroom. The best location for 
the cloakroom is directly behind the teacher's desk. It 
should have no door entering from the hall, but should be 
connected with the classroom by two doors, one on either 
side of the teacher's desk. This arrangement permits suit- 
able control of the room by the teacher, and minimizes the 
danger of pilfering and other annoyances. The cloakroom 
should of course be well lighted and ventilated. Ventilation 
can be managed by having a part of the air of the classroom 
circulate (through perforated doors) into the cloakroom on 
its way to the outlet ducts. 

SPECIAL ROOMS 

In order to be regarded as strictly modern, a city school 
building should ordinarily have the following specially 



2 54 School Organization and Administration 

planned rooms : An assembly room, a library, a rest room, 
a kindergarten room, a nurse's room, shower baths with 
dressing booths, and rooms for manual training, sewing, 
and cooking. An art room is also desirable. Proper pro- 
vision should be made for these in the original plans, as the 
ordinary classroom can seldom be worked over satisfac- 
torily into a special room. 

The kindergarten room (or rooms) should of course be 
on the first floor, and should be extremely well lighted. A 
south exposure, though ol:»jectionable for other classrooms, 
is well adapted for kindergartens. The kindergarten (pref- 
erably also the first grade) should have its own toilet, with 
small fixtures. 

The rooms to be used for cooking should of course be 
planned for the special equipment needed, and should be 
bright and attractive. To use for this purpose a room which 
is dark, dingy, and ill-ventilated is subversive of the very 
purposes for which domestic science is taught. 

The manual-training rooms should be located where the 
noise will not disturb classes, and should always be well 
lighted. These should have a storeroom of liberal 
dimensions. 

The library need not be large, but it should be excep- 
tionally well lighted and attractively furnished. 

The art room should be given a north exposure, in order 
to avoid direct sunlight, but it must have a large amount of 
lighting surface. 

The nurse's room should be on the first floor, and need 
not be large. It should have abundant light, running water, 
and a built-in cabinet for the storing of first-aitl material and 
other equipment. 

The assembly room is the most important part of the 
building. Its inclusion in all new buildings is one of the 
most important steps toward the " wider use of the school 
plant." Nothing else about the building so operates to bring 
the school and the home together. The total valuation of 
the school buildings and grounds of Salt Lal-ce City is given 



The School Plant 255 

as $3,041,343. This investment is productive only six 
hours a day for 200 days of the year; or a total of 1,200 
hours per year. Everything that promotes increased use 
of the school plant ought to be encouraged, and the assembly 
room certainly belongs in this category. Some of the most 
important considerations in its planning are size, easy ac- 
cessibility, and safety from fire. 

Special schoolrooms in this city are usually conspicuous 
for their absence. Only a small minority of the buildings 
are provided with an assembly room. Rooms used for cook- 
ing, sewing, manual training, and library are seldom 
adapted to the purpose, and are often rooms which are too 
dark, damp, or inaccessible to be used for regular classes. 
The buildings constructed in the last two or three years 
are improvements in this respect, but there is still not a 
nurse's room in the city, and not a bath in the grades below 
the high school. Nor do all of the recent buildings contain 
an assembly room. 

Special rooms of the above types are to be regarded as 
necessities, not as luxuries. They should be included in 
future school buildings as a mere matter of course. The 
argument that they cost a good deal of money has no 
weight. School facilities which poorer cities can and do 
afford are surely not too costly for Salt Lake City. As 
already shown this city has wasted enough money in un- 
economical building plans to have supplied most of the 
special rooms needed. 

OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS 

Salt Lake City is one of the few cities of its size in the 
country without an open-air school. The impression seems 
to prevail that they are unnecessary here because of the ex- 
cellence of the climate. There is absolutely no ground for 
such a view. Recent and widespread investigations justify 
the conclusion that in the schools of any climate there are 
numerous children with latent tuberculosis, and many others 



256 School Organization and Administration 

who are predisposed to it. The disease is rapidly coming 
to be looked upon as a " children's disease," one which is 
acquired by a large proportion of children everywhere. 
There is reason to believe that a majority of the cases 
which do not become " manifest " until adult life have 
existed in latent form since childhood. 

The proportion of school children with manifest tubercu- 
losis is of course relatively small, usually not more than a 
half of one per cent, of the total enrollment. Even at this 
rate the share of Salt Lake City would be 100. There is 
little doubt that careful medical examination of all the 
school children would disclose enough tuberculous children 
to fill three or four open-air classes. California, with a cli- 
mate fully as unfavorable to tuberculosis as that of Salt 
Lake City, has its open-air schools in every city of any con- 
siderable size. 

Many children who are not actually tuberculous would 
benefit greatly from such classes. This includes all who are 
ill-nourished, subject to colds or bronchitis, or otherwise 
lacking in physical resistance. Facts have been presented 
which indicate that probably not far from two thousand 
children in this city are physically a good deal below nor- 
mal. There is little doubt that the condition of most of 
these could be improved by the right kind of school adapta- 
tions in their favor. For hundreds of them, at least, the 
open-air class is the one remedy needed. No building to 
be erected in the future should be without one or more open- 
air classrooms. 

SCHOOL BATHS 

The value of school baths deserves sjDccial emphasis. 
Two shower rooms, one for boys and one for girls, should 
be found in every new building. They are especially neces- 
sary in certain parts of the city, and if possible they should 
yet be installed in such schools as the Fremont, Jackson, 
Lincoln, and Riverside. Basement rooms which are now 



The School Plant 257 

unfortunately used as regular classrooms could be fitted up 
for this purpose, at moderate expense. 

School baths promote the health of the children, aid in 
instilling lifelong habits of personal hygiene, and greatly 
improve the atmosphere of the schoolroom. The members 
of the survey staff visited many schoolrooms which were 
filled with sickening odors from unclean bodies. Even in 
the poorer countries of western Europe, where school econ- 
omy is more necessary than in this country, baths are in- 
cluded in all new school buildings. 

Admirable suggestions for planning school baths are to 
be found in Dresslar's American Schoolhoiises, published 
by the United States Bureau of Education, and in School 
Hygiene by the same author (Macmillan). Important con- 
siderations are good light, impervious floor, dressing 
booths, individual showers for the older girls, drainage, 
heating apparatus for controlling the temperature of the 
water, etc. 



TOILETS 

Only in the new high school are the toilets fully up to 
the standard requirements. In others of the recently built 
schools they are not bad. In most of the older buildings, 
however, they are far from satisfactory, and the worst 
are unfit for use. Wooden partitions between urinals, cor- 
roding metal urinal troughs with low backs, toilet seats of 
only one size, inadequate number of seats and urinals, im- 
proper flushing, location in dark and ill-ventilated quarters, 
inaccessibility, inadequate supply of paper, — these are 
common faults, some of which are found in almost every 
building, and in certain schools all. The worst toilets should 
be remodeled at once. 

One of the least excusable faults is an inadequate num- 
ber of seats and urinals. There should be one seat for 
twenty-five boys and one for fifteen girls ; and there should 
be one urinal stall for twenty boys. One school, the Sumner, 



258 School Organization and Administration 

has less than half the standard number of seats for boys, 
while several others have much less than half the required 
number. 

TABLE XLIII 

Seating, Lighting, and Toilet Facilities in the Different School 

Buildings 

















^ 




^ 








1 




a 






'0 
H 


s 


'3 
H 


a 


Name of School 


tZ 

t^S 


to 


~'o 
a " 


la 

3 
CO 

"0 


Si 


3 
in 

"0 


h 

.2-2 


1 




1 

CO 






t 




g 




□ 

(!5 


61 


i 


« a 
-3 


a 

u 
U 







V 


&^ 


k4 


'S- 


\^ 




%-t 


•a'fi 


•a 




m 


P-, 


m 


^ 





Ai 


*A 


^ 


^ 


a^ 


Bonneville 


18 


138 


S3 


37 


18 


138 


4/5 


400 


4/S 


400 


Bryant . . . 








19 


131 


30 


66 


15 


100 


4/5 


400 


1/3 


i66 


Emerson . . 








30 


83 


90 


22 


23 


60 


1/7 


71 


1/7 


71 


Ensign . . . 








27 


92 


27 


74 


21 


71 


ii/SO 


no 


11/50 


no 


Forest . . . 








35 


71 


21 


95 


35 


42 


1/18 


27 


i/il 


45 


Franklin . . 








38 


65 


51 


41 


25 


66 


13/100 


6S 


13/100 


6S 


Fremont . . 








19 


131 


19 


los 


13 


IIS 


12/197 


30 


12/197 


30 


Grant .... 








39 


64 


39 


51 


25 


66 


1/4 


125 


1/4 


125 


Hamilton . . 








24 


104 


59 


33 


24 


62 


1/7 


71 


1/7 


71 


Hawthorne 








22 


113 


27 


74 


16 


93 


67/632 


50 


67/839 


39 


Irving . . . 








19 


131 


95 


21 


19 


78 


* 




* 




Jackson . . . 








25 


100 


40 


SO 


17 


88 


19/100 


95 


19/100 


95 


Jefferson . . 








19 


131 


21 


41 


16 


93 


i/ii 


49 


i/S 


100 


Lafayette . . 








28 


89 


43 


46 


25 


66 


1/4 


120 


1/3 


166 


Lincoln . . . 








32 


78 


45 


44 


28 


Si 


3/10 


ISO 


4/10 


200 


Longfellow 








II 


230 


17 


117 


9 


166 


3/25 


60 


2/25 


40 


Lowell . . . 








26 


96 


26 


26 


25 


66 


13/100 


65 


17/100 


8S 


Monroe . . . 








32 


78 


32 


62 


80 


18 


1/22 


22 


1/14 


I2S 


Onequa . . . 








21 


119 


21 


95 


15 


100 


4/25 


80 


4/25 


80 


Onequa (Annex) 








9 


277 


18 


III 


9 


166 


* 




* 




Oquirrh . . . 








30 


83 


36 


55 


23 


6s 


7/24 


140 


S/12 


200 


Poplar Grove 








26 


96 


42 


48 


17 


88 


17/1000 


8.5 


17/1000 


8.S 


Riverside . . 








23 


108 


38 


52 


16 


93 


1/7 
1/4 


71 
125 


1/7 
1/4 


71 

I2S 


Sumner . . . 








54 


46 


63 


31 


32 


46 


1/4 


125 


1/5 


100 


Training . . 








17 


147 


22 


99 


14 


107 


Il/lOO 


55 


ii/ioo 


55 


Twelfth . . . 








24 


104 


24 


83 


6 


250 


1/6 


83 


1/9 


SS 


Wasatch . . 








22 


113 


30 


67 


19 


79 


1/5 


1000 


1/6 


83 


Washington 








31 


80 


52 


38 


26 


57 


1/8 


61 


1/7 


71 


Webster . . . 








36 


69 


45 


44 


22 


68 


i/S 


100 


I/S 


100 


Whittier . . 








27 


92 


29 


69 


27 


55 








100 


East High . . 








24 


62 


21 


95 


17 


88 


l/S 


100 


i/S 


100 


West High 








14 


104 


1 '' 


117 


17 


88 


1/8,1/12 


61 


i/S 


100 



* Data not secured from school. 



Table XLIII shows the number of boys per seat, the 
number of boys per urinal, the number of girls per seat, 



The School Plant 259 

and the ratio of window area to floor space in both the 
boys' and the girls' toilets, for each school in the city. The 
second figure in each double column shows the percentage 
of sufficiency of the item in cjuestion. 

WHAT THIS TABLE REVEALS 

Some of the most striking facts shown in Table XLIII 
are as follows : 

1. Less than 25 per cent, sufficiency of urinals at Emer- 
son and Irving; 

2. Less than 45 per cent, sufficiency of urinals at Bonne- 
ville, Franklin, Hamilton, Jefferson, Sumner, Lincoln, 
Washington, and Webster; 

3. Less than 50 per cent, sufficiency of seats for boys at 
Sumner ; 

4. Less than 20 per cent, sufficiency of seats for girls at 
Monroe ; 

5. Less than 50 per cent, sufficiency of seats for girls at 
Sumner and Forest ; 

6. Equal proportion of seats for the two sexes in six 
schools ; 

7. Astonishing variation from school to school in the 
apportionment of seats and urinals, ranging, for example, 
from one seat for nine girls at Longfellow to one for eighty 
girls at Monroe; from one seat for eleven boys at Long- 
fellow to one for 54 boys at Sumner ; from one urinal for 
seventeen boys at Longfellow to one for ninety at Emerson 
and one for ninety-five at Irving. 

8. Similar lack of standards as regards the lighting of 
toilets, the ratio of window to floor space ranging from 
f down to sV- 

Surely the above facts show chaos compounded. The 
laws of chance would have given about as correct propor- 
tions. The need for some educational oversight of the 
building department is certainly evident. 

At least ten toilets have less than half the standard 



26o School Organization and Administration 

amount of window area, and the lighting of toilets is often 
less satisfactory than the ratios given in the table would 
suggest. In many cases the windows are partly below 
ground, often the panes are not fully transparent, or the 
light is obstructed in some other way. Generally the seats 
are arranged in double rows, in which case the row facing 
away from the windows is almost sure to be poorly lighted. 
Only one row of seats should be permitted. Toilet rooms 
should always be made large enough to permit the observ- 
ance of this rule. 

The method of dispensing toilet paper is very unsatis- 
factory. Ordinarily there is only one dispenser for a 
toilet room, none being placed in the individual stalls. The 
dispenser used is the familiar lock-box variety, which 
works so slowly that in the rush periods at recess pupils 
cannot possibly be properly supplied. 

In one school boys were seen to go to the stalls without 
paper rather than stand in line to wait their turn. In an- 
other toilet the dispenser was empty and no paper was to 
be found. The object of the single-dispenser plan was said 
to be economy! Surely one of the wealthiest cities of its 
class in the United States ought not to find itself driven to 
such disgusting economy. Economy is a good thing in its 
place, but children ought to be encouraged or even explicitly 
instructed to avoid economy of this kind. What possible 
connections can be established between such a type of build- 
ing supervision and the hygiene instruction in the schools? 

DRINKING FOUNTAINS 

It is a pleasure to find inviting, bubbling fountains at all 
the schools. In sixteen (half) of the schools, however, 
there are no fountains inside the building. It is recom- 
mended that half the fountains, at least, should be placed 
inside. More attention should also be given to the ratio 
of fountains to school children. Table XLIV shows this 
to be very uneven. Some of the schools have more foun- 



The School Plant 261 

tains than necessary, others too few. Probably one fountain 
for about 75 to 100 children is the correct proportion. 

TABLE XLIV 

, Drinking Fountains Provided 

Less than 25 children per fountain, 2 schools; 
Between 25 and 50 children per fountain, 3 schools; 
Between 50 and 75 children per fountain, 11 schools; 
Between 75 and 100 children per fountain, 9 schools; 
Between 100 and 125 children per fountain, 3 schools; 
Between 125 and 150 children per fountain, o schools; 
Over 150 children per fountain, 2 schools. 

ROLLER TOWELS 

In schools where the common drinking cup has long been 
banished it is surprising to find the common roller towel 
everywhere in evidence. No school is without it. Many 
of those seen were unspeakably dirty, as of course roller 
towels are expected to be. One of the principals testified 
that he had recently acquired pink-eye from drying his 
hands on one and then rubbing his eye with the finger. It 
has been demonstrated often enough that the roller towel 
is a frequent means of spreading contagious disease. It 
should of course be banished forthwith in favor of sanitary 
paper towels. 

JANITOR SERVICE 

The janitor service, though perhaps on the whole not 
inferior to that of the average city, is in a number of 
schools not satisfactory. A majority of the principals 
questioned testified, however, that the janitors are con- 
scientious in their efforts to do the work as it should be 
done. The fault, where any exists, appears to be chiefly 
in the lack of persistent and intelligent supervision, espe- 
cially the latter. 

Feather dusters are used exclusively in three of the build- 



262 School Organization and Administration 

ings (Emerson, Longfellow, and Wasatch), and in part in 
sixteen others. The feather duster is a criminal offender 
and should not be tolerated. 

Still worse, dry sweeping is regularly practiced in both 
classrooms and halls of seven buildings ; namely. Ensign, 
Forest, Oncqua, Oquirrh, Poplar Grove, Sumner, and West 
High. In certain other buildings sweeping compound is 
used in the halls, but not in the classrooms. It would appear 
that many of the janitors use the sweeping compound only 
intermittently, as four out of eleven were found sweeping 
without it. When questioned, each gave the same reply; 
namely, that the supply had just been exhausted! In all 
these cases choking clouds of dust were being raised. An- 
other prevailing practice to be strongly condemned is that 
of sweeping the halls while the school is in session. All 
the classrooms are swept daily except in the West High 
School. 

There are no vacuum cleaners in the schools. This 
method of removing dirt and dust is wonderfully satisfac- 
tory in school buildings when the cleaning plant is properly 
installed. Careful attention, however, must be paid to size 
and location of ducts, power of fans, etc. It is strongly 
urged that vacuum cleaners be given a thorough trial in 
buildings erected in the future. 

The floors of most, but not all, of the buildings have been 
oiled, though in some cases not for many months or even 
years. The use of floor oils should be required in all build- 
ings, regardless of protests on the part of a few teachers. 
The oil should be applied lightly at least twice a year. The 
floor should first be thoroughly cleaned, and the oil which 
does not penetrate the wood should be carefully mopped up. 
If these precautions are taken the oiled floor will not look 
unsightly and it will not soil the clothing. Oiling the floors 
is imperative in the interests of health. Over and over 
again it has been experimentally demonstrated that it de- 
creases the number of floating dust particles and of bacteria 
to one-fifth or one-tenth that found in untreated rooms. 



The School Plant 



263 



This is illustrated in the following tests made by Dr. Lam- 
bert in an English school : 

TABLE XLV 

Effect of Treating Floors with Oil 





Colonies of Bacteria 


Plates Exposed 


Floors 

Treated 

by Oil 


Floors 

not 

Treated 


5 minutes in still air 



2 
3S 
ir 
6 
I 


7 


30 minutes in still air 


12 


5 minutes during sweeping 


456 


5 minutes just after sweeping 

5 minutes beginning 10 minutes after sweeping . 
5 minutes beginning 15 minutes after sweeping . 


79 
62 

31 



NEED FOR GREATER CLEANLINESS 

Unquestionably much of the nasal catarrh and throat 
trouble found among the children (see Figure 43) is ac- 
counted for by the antiquated methods of school housekeep- 
ing in vogue in this city. Every effort should be made to 
keep the school building as neat as a well-kept home and as 
clean as a hospital. This should be the aim, even though it 
is not always possible to attain it fully. 

More could be done in this direction if the school grounds 
were always well drained, properly graded, and in part grav- 
eled. More attention should be paid to having children 
clean their shoes before entering the building, and for this 
purpose doormats and scrapers should be more liberally 
provided. On rainy days the members of the survey staff 
saw many school buildings in which the floors of classrooms 
were covered with mud. 

It was not possible to gather extensive data regarding 



264 School Organization and Administration 

the competency of janitors in the management of the heat- 
ing and ventilating apparatus. The temperature records 
previousl}^ given show that some fault exists here, but ex- 
actly how much of this is to be charged against the janitors, 
and how much to the imperfection of heating plants, we do 
not know. The matter is recommended for further inves- 
tigation by the school authorities. The same may be said 
in regard to the imperfections of ventilation. 

Next to the principal, the janitor is the most important 
officer in the school building. The duties are so varied that 
it is not easy to find persons who have all the needed quali- 
fications. Janitors should combine the neat housewife's 
ideals of cleanliness with a fair knowledge of mechanics. 
The right moral and temperamental qualifications are no less 
important. It is evident that it is impossible to give too 
much care to the choice of janitors. After the selection has 
been made, efficiency should be the only ground for 
retention. 

Efficiency of janitors can be greatly increased by super- 
vision and training. Professional study, including lectures 
and required reading, should be arranged at least every sec- 
ond year for the entire janitorial force. 

FIRE PROTECTION 

Only the newest buildings are fireproof. The stairs are 
usually wooden, the furnace rooms are not always fire- 
proof, and the fire escapes are in a few cases either lacking 
or inadequate. One of the outside doors was found locked 
during school hours at two buildings. Only a few of 
the schools have panic bolts for the outside doors. The fire 
drills, five of which were witnessed, were reasonably good, 
but not always as orderly as could be desired. The time for 
clearing the building ranged from a minute and twenty sec- 
onds to two minutes and five seconds. 

Serious fire tragedies have occurred in school buildings 
no worse than the majority of those in Salt Lake City, and 



The School Plant 265 

it is recommended that precautions be taken on all the 
points enumerated above. Panic bolts should be provided 
immediately for all outside doors, and fire drills should be 
subjected to more uniform control. Future buildings should 
be made more nearly fireproof. 

QUALITY OF CONSTRUCTION AND COSTS 

The limited time for the survey did not permit a careful 
study of these questions. Costs vary so much in different 
parts of the country that only a searching investigation 
would have made possible any criticism on this point. The 
quality of construction appears to have been, on the whole, 
very substantial, — unfortunately so, considering the primi- 
tive type of architecture in all but the most recent buildings. 
All but those erected in the last four or five years are so 
faulty in plan that it is a pity they are not now rickety 
enough to demand replacement. It is depressing to think 
that some of these will last a quarter of a century yet, and 
that many thousands of children will have to suffer from 
their defects. The planning of school buildings should be 
looked upon, indeed, as a solemn undertaking. It is a task 
which calls not only for the highest class of professional 
skill, but also for a readiness to regard every other interest 
as secondary to the welfare of children. 

REPAIRS 

The annual budget for the maintenance and repairs of 
the school buildings, which for the past six years has aver- 
aged about $55,000 a year, seems rather large, when we 
consider the present condition of the buildings. The ques- 
tion raised is whether the money expended for this purpose 
has always been devoted to the kind of repairs most urgent. 
Many new floors have recently been laid, at considerable 
expense, in buildings where alterations of rooms and im- 
proved toilet facilities were much more needed. These old 



266 School Organization and Administration 

floors would have liad to be very bad indeed to justify tlieir 
renewal at the expense of other needed improvements. 

Good floors are important, but it may be well to empha- 
size the fact that in disposing of a repair budget there seems 
to be a natural tendency to give preference to the kind of 
repair w^ork w^hich is simplest, which requires the least plan- 
ning and the least supervision, and which carries with it 
the least educational significance. Floor renewal falls in 
this class. Fundamental alterations, the reconstruction of 
toilets, changes in lighting, etc., all require better school- 
engineering knowledge, more forethought in the planning, 
and more expert supervision. 

As a matter of fact it requires more thought to distribute 
to the best advantage $50,000 for repairs than to plan a new 
school building costing $100,000. It is evident, however, 
that the matter has not been viewed in this light in Salt 
Lake City in the past. 

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS 

1. About half of the school sites are of inadequate size. 
Approximately 10,500 children attend schools where the 
available playground space amounts to less than 100 square 
feet per child. Several of these sites could yet be enlarged, 
and it is recommended that steps be taken to this end. 
Future needs in this line should be anticipated. 

2. The architectural plans in all but the most recent 
buildings, and to a certain extent these also, have involved 
very great waste of building space, amounting in many of 
the buildings to 40 per cent, in terms of cubical contents. 

3. There are no baths, no cloakrooms, no nurses' rooms, 
and few assembly rooms in the city. The (piarters for 
domestic science and manual training are in many cases 
unsatisfactory. It is suggested that most of these con- 
veniences could be provided in future buildings by proper 
economy of space. 

4. It is recommended that most of the 74 basement 



The School Plant 267 

rooms be abandoned at the earliest possible moment, and 
that basement rooms l)e avoided in future buildings. The 
same recommendation holds for the 46 hall classrooms. 

5. There are relatively few classrooms in the city which 
conform to all the standards of lighting. In more than half 
the lighting is very objectionable. It is recommended that 
the walls and ceilings be retinted; that light-obstructions 
be removed where possible; that translucent, double-roller 
window shades be substituted for those now in use; and 
that in future buildings the following standards be observed : 

(a) Avoidance of north or south lighting; 

(b) All rooms to be lighted from left only ; 

(c) Ratio of window area to floor area, 20-25 per cent. ; 

(d) Six to eight feet of dead space in front of first 
window. 

6. Temperature records collected at three dififerent times 
in the school year show that out of 1,157 records, 71 per 
cent, are unsatisfactory, and that 16 per cent, are as much 
as 5 degrees too high or too low. Other facts indicate that 
the ventilating systems in use are also often at fault. It is 
recommended that the heating and ventilating apparatus be 
thoroughly gone over with a view to the correction of as 
many defects as possible. 

7. Adjustable desks are present in sufificient number in 
only 10 per cent, of the classrooms. In the future only 
adjustable desks should be purchased. Practically all desks 
are incorrectly set. The arrangement should be changed 
from " zero distance " to " minus distance " throughout 
the city. 

8. The blackboards are generally in good repair, but a 
large number are placed too high from the floor. 

9. The janitor work should be improved and more care- 
fully supervised. Dry-sweeping and dry-dusting should be 
prohibited. The school principals should be given larger 
control over the selection and work of the janitors. 

10. Several of the toilets need improvements, and a few 



268 School Organization and Administration 

should be entirely replaced. The fixtures are often of an 
unsatisfactory type, seats and urinals are often insufficient 
in number, and the method of dispensing toilet paper is very 
objectionable. The lighting should be improved where 
possible. 

11. The roller towel and common soap should go. 

12. Drinking fountains should be more carefully appor- 
tioned according to the number of children, and half of 
them should be placed inside the buildings. 

13. Showers for both boys and girls should find a place 
in all new buildings. 

14. Open-air classes should be provided for tuberculous 
and pretuberculous children. 

15. The worst of the present buildings should be aban- 
doned as early as possible. 

16. A new building, somewhat centrally located, should 
be provided for the subnormal children, to take the place of 
the present Twelfth School. 

17. Special forethought should be given to the repair 
budget, in order to insure that it be used to better advantage. 

18. The superintendent of buildings and the janitor force 
should be made responsible to the superintendent of schools. 

19. It is especially urged that in all matters pertaining 
to heating, lighting, ventilation, and school planning gen- 
erally, the services of a cjualified full-time expert be secured 
and retained. 



CHAPTER XI 
HEALTH SUPERVISION 

STANDARDS FOR COMPARISON 

BEFORE offering a criticism of the health supervision 
in the Salt Lake City schools it will be well to set 
forth the standards which have been generally agreed upon 
by the best authorities as constituting the essentials for this 
phase of school work. While a few good school systems 
are at present lacking in some of the following items, the 
effort is being made in all progressive cities to incorporate 
as many of them as possible, and many school systems have 
the equivalent of them all. The standards set forth are 
meant to indicate the requirements in cities of from 75,000 
to 150,000 population. 

OFFICERS AND ASSISTANTS 

One full-time medical director; one half-time assistant 
physician for each 10,000 children in the grades; one full- 
time female physician for each 800 to 1,200 high-school 
girls; one full-time male physician for each 800 to 1,200 
high-school boys; a nurse for every 2,000 pupils in the 
grades; one half-time dentist; and one half-time specialist 
in diseases of the eye, ear, nose, and throat, for each 10,000 
pupils. 

SCOPE AND NATURE OF WORK 

The work should include the following: 

I. Frequent inspection of all the children by school 
nurses for the control of transmissible diseases, with proper 
regulations for exclusions ; 

269 



270 School Organization and Administration 

2. A thorough medical examination of each child at 
least every second school year, for the purpose of detecting 
chronic defects as well as acute disorders ; 

3. Annual tests of vision and hearing, either by nurses 
or teachers ; 

4. Persistent follow-up work by nurses, in order that 
parents may be convinced of the necessity of having their 
children's defects attended to; 

5. Free medical and dental treatment in a central clinic, 
for the children of poor or indigent, by a regularly employed 
school physician and dentist, this to be supplemented by 
cooperation with local dental and medical societies and witli 
hospitals and dispensaries ; 

6. Sanitary inspection of school buildings by nurses and 
physicians ; 

7. Medical examination of candidates for teaching 
positions ; 

8. Open-air schools for tuberculous or anaemic children ; 

9. School lunches for the ill-nourished, furnished gratis 
to those who cannot afford to pay ; 

10. The education of the home in matters of child hy- 
giene by means of parent-teacher associations, distribution 
of health leaflets, etc. ; and 

11. Publicity work for enlisting the cooperation of the 
general public. 

In order to give proper scope to the work, and in order to 
insure effective co5peration among its various branches, it 
is usually advisable to have it under the control of the 
board of education rather than the board of health. 

COSTS 

Director, $3,000; full-time assistant physicians or den- 
tists, $1,800 to $2,200; half-time physicians or dentists. 
$1,000 to $1,200; head nurse, $100 per month; regular 
nurses, $75 to $90 per month. Total cost, between 75 cents 
and $1.00 for each school child, or $15,000 to $20,000 for 



Health Supervision 271 

a city the size of Salt Lake City. To this should be added 
the outlay for equipping a central clinic and for the nurse's 
room which should be provided in each new school building. 
In judging the school health work of this city it is neces- 
sary to keep the above standards rather fully in mind. No 
other function which the school has assumed in recent years 
exceeds health supervision in importance ; and yet, partly 
because of its newness, it is often carried on with little vision 
of the larger purposes it ought to serve. Even cities which 
are otherwise commendably progressive in school matters 
sometimes rest content with halfway measures in health 
supervision, not realizing their inadequacy. This is espe- 
cially true in localities which are geographically isolated, 
and where there is only limited opportunity to observe the 
work of other cities and to learn from their experience. 

STAGES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF HEALTH SERVICE 

The growth of school health work in the cities of the 
United States, and other countries as well, is marked by 
certain well-defined stages. It always begins in an effort of 
physicians or of the board of health to prevent the spread 
of transmissible diseases in the schools, to eradicate para- 
sites, and to improve the sanitary conditions of the build- 
ings. The work indicated represents the first stage of 
health supervision, and is usually called " medical inspec- 
tion." Because of the obvious duty of the public to counter- 
act the increased danger of contagion, incident to compul- 
sory attendance of all classes of children in the same school, 
this was the logical and natural first point of attack. 

After this phase of the work has been gotten well in hand, 
and when the medical inspectors have had more opportunity 
to observe and study the physical needs of the children, they 
are brought to a keener realization of the large number of 
children who have one or more serious physical defects 
other than a contagious disease. Among the defects, often 
neglected or unnoticed even by intelligent parents and teach- 



272 School Organization aiid Administration 

ers, are adenoids, enlarged tonsils, visual defects, partial 
deafness, defective teeth, malnutrition, physical deformities, 
heart trouble, diseased glands, incipient tuberculosis, etc. 
While only about 2 or 3 per cent, of the school children of 
a city need to be excluded in any one year because of a 
contagious disease, about 60 to 75 per cent, are always 
found to have one or more serious physical defects of the 
chronic type. 

THE SECOND STAGE IN DEVELOPMENT 

When such conditions are understood and appreciated the 
nature and purpose of medical inspection must be differently 
conceived. In addition to the frequent and hasty inspec- 
tions for contagion, thorough physical examinations are 
then instituted, including examinations of heart, lungs, 
nutrition, teeth, eyes, ears, and throat. Assistant physicians 
and school nurses, in rather large number, become necessary 
in order to meet the extension and increased thoroughness 
of the work. Since many parents fail to realize the serious- 
ness of the defects discovered, and disregard the notices 
sent out by the medical director, it becomes necessary to 
organize a vigorous follow-up service. In this the well- 
trained and tactful nurse has proved herself indispensable. 
Because some parents are too poor to pay for the medical 
or dental treatment recommended, free clinics must be or- 
ganized and the cooperation of local medical and dental 
associations, charity organizations, hospitals, and dispen- 
saries must be enlisted. This may be called the second stage 
in the development of school health work. 

THE THIRD STAGE 

This is represented by a shift of the emphasis to preven- 
tive work. The attempt to bring about the cure of defects 
after they have become well established is praiseworthy, but 
the task is difficult and the results are often partial and un- 



Health Supervision 273 

satisfactory. It is far more rational to exercise such con- 
stant and close supervision over the health and physical 
development of the school children that defects will be pre- 
vented, or else remedied before they have become a menace 
to healthy growth. The acceptance of this point of view 
necessitates : 

1. Increased thoroughness of the examinations in the 
lower grades ; 

2. Extension of free medical and dental treatment ; 

3. The establishment of open-air schools for anaemic and 
pretuberculous children ; 

4. School feeding; 

5. School baths ; 

6. Special schools for the cure of speech defects; 

7. Medical supervision of physical training and athletics ; 

8. Modifications in the program and discipline of the 
school in order to guard against fatigue and to prevent in- 
jury to neuropathic children; 

9. Special classes for the mentally subnormal ; 

10. Increased attention to standards of heating, light- 
ing, and ventilation ; 

11. Improvement of janitorial service; 

12. More practical and effective hygiene teaching; 

13. Enlarged playground facilities and play supervision; 

14. Systematic enlightenment of the teachers in matters 
of health ; 

15. Organized publicity and extension work, designed to 
improve the hygienic standards of the home. 

School health work of this inclusive and preventive na- 
ture goes far beyond what has usually been called " medical 
inspection," and may be fitly termed health and development 
supervision. Its aim is to organize all the forces and de- 
partments of the school, not only for the prevention of 
disease, but also for the more positive cultivation of physi- 
cal efficiency. 



2 74 School Organization and Administration 



HEALTH SUPERVISION BECOMES AN EDUCATIONAL SERVICE 

It is at once evident that health work of this broad scope, 
interwoven as it is with the everyday educational activities 
of the school, cannot be carried on as an incident in the 
public health work, or as a side issue from the office of the 
board of health. It must have a full-time and responsible 
head who is not only well trained in preventive medicine 
generally and child hygiene in particular, but who has also 
the educational viewpoint and the ability and authority to 
aid in shaping the activities of the school so as better to 
accord with the child's physical needs. Accordingly it is 
found necessary in nearly all cases, before health super- 
vision can enter fully into the third stage above described, 
for the board of education to assume responsibility for the 
work and to finance and control it. In the first stage the 
work can be perfectly handled by the board of health, and, 
though somewhat less satisfactorily, in the second stage 
also. Very much depends, however, on the personal equa- 
tion of the man behind the work. Better results will of 
course be secured by a first-class director employed by the 
board of health than by a second- or third-rate director 
working under the authority of the board of education. 



NATURE OF THE SCHOOL HEALTH WORK IN 
SALT LAKE CITY 

In the light of the above discussion we are now in posi- 
tion to judge the school health work in Salt Lake City with 
reference to widely accepted and impersonal standards. 
The leading features of the system are as follows : 

I. The work is carried on under the authority of the 
city board of health, and under the general direction of the 
health commissioner. It is more immediately under the 
direction of one of the board of health's assistant physi- 
cians, who devotes to it a large share of his time. 



Health Supervision 275 

2. There are six nurses, including a head nurse, all of 
whom give most of their time to school work as long as the 
schools are in session. 

3. The efforts of the above corps of officers are at pres- 
ent devoted mainly to the prevention and control of conta- 
gious diseases. Recently, also, a good deal has been done 
to bring about the treatment of adenoids, diseased tonsils, 
and the more serious cases of eye defects. 

4. Each school is visited from two to four times a week 
by a nurse, who spends on an average from one to two 
minutes in each classroom, walking down each aisle and 
inspecting the faces and arms of the children for signs of 
contagious disease. In some of the schools the hair also 
is inspected for pediculosis. 

More careful examinations are made of children who 
show symptoms of contagious disease, and exclusions are 
ordered in the cases which seem to require it. At the same 
time, permits are issued for the readmission of children 
who have been previously excluded and are in condition to 
return to school. Such children are allowed to report to 
the nurse at the school which they regularly attend, instead 
of being compelled to journey down town to the office of 
the health commissioner for this purpose. Before leaving 
the building the nurse makes note of any unsanitary condi- 
tions which seem to demand attention. Most of her re- 
maining time is taken up with home visitation, and in mak- 
ing arrangements for the free medical treatment of the 
children of the poor. 

5. When a child has been excluded by the nurse, as de- 
scribed in the last paragraph, a visit is made to the child's 
home by one of the assistant physicians for the purpose of 
making a diagnosis of the case. Most of these visits are 
made by one physician. 

6. There is no medical examination, periodically or 
otherwise, of the entire school population, and there are 
few individual instances of medical examination except in 
cases of suspected contagious disease. 



276 School Organization and Administration 

7. .Neither a medical nor a dental clinic has yet been 
established. 

8. High-school pupils do not have the advantage of 
medical examinations or advice, and there is no medical 
supervision of athletics. However, a commendable begin- 
ning has been made in this line by the supervisor of physi- 
cal education, who examines higli-school boys for defects 
of vision, hearing, heart, and posture. 

9. There are no bathing facilities in the grades below 
the high school. 

10. Little has been done toward providing school meals 
for ill-nourished children. 

11. In contrast with nearly all other cities of its size in 
the United States, Salt Lake City has not yet established an 
open-air school. 

12. The cost of the above work cannot be ascertained 
exactly, because all who are engaged in it give a portion of 
their time to other duties. The six nurses are paid $5,080 
per year, and the assistant physician who has direct charge 
of the work is paid $1,500 per year. The cost of the school 
work may be estimated as between $5,000 and $6,000 per 
year, which is a little over 25 cents per pupil enrolled, or 
about one-third to one-fourth the cost of an adequate sys- 
tem of health supervision. 

13. In addition to the work carried on by the board of 
health, the board of education also employs an emergency 
physician to answer calls from the schools. Although the 
title of this physician is " medical inspector of schools," the 
office is at present a rather nominal one, as the duties are 
light and the pay proportional to the number of calls made. 
Another function of this branch of the school medical serv- 
ice is to provide for the medical examinations of candidates 
for teaching positions, and to require, when it is deemed 
advisable, medical examinations of teachers in service. For 
this purpose a " board of medical examiners for teachers " 
has been selected, consisting of thirteen physicians, with the 
physician apjwinted by the board of education as chairman. 



Health Supervision 277 

STAGE IN DEVELOPMENT REPRESENTED 

Comparing now the scope of service attempted with the 
recognized standards ah'eady set forth, it is immediately 
obvious that school health work in Salt Lake City has not 
progressed far beyond what we have described as the " first 
stage " of development. Transmissible diseases are admi- 
rably controlled, sanitary inspection of the buildings is car- 
ried on, a few examinations for chronic defects are made, 
the nurses are doing as much follow-up work as time will 
permit; but the 60 or 75 per cent, of children who have 
chronic defects receive little attention as compared with 
the relatively small proportion who acquire a contagious 
disease. The larger and more important fields of work 
which fall within the " second stage " and " third stage " 
already described have been little developed. The impor- 
tance of this wider field will be set forth presently. 

It is a pleasure to add, however, that whatever work is 
attempted is apparently well done. The records show un- 
mistakably that contagious diseases have been significantly 
reduced in the last two or three years. Parasites have been 
largely eradicated, and all the teachers cjuestioned bore wit- 
ness to tlie fact that the work of the nurses had brought ex- 
cellent results in the improvement of health conditions and 
in the promotion of cleanliness. That the follow-up work 
has been fruitful in spite of the large number of pupils as- 
signed to each nurse (3,000 to 3,500) is indicated by the 
fact that 10 per cent, of the pupils enrolled have had ade- 
noids or tonsils removed, and that 3.4 per cent, have had 
such an operation within the last year. 

RESULTS FROM THE PRESENT SERVICE 

Important evidence as to the efficiency of the nurses in 
controlling contagious diseases was secured in the following 
manner. It will be remembered that in making the routine 
inspections at a school it was stated that the nurse excludes 



278 School Organization and Administration 

pupils who show symptoms of contagious disease, after 
which the assistant physician visits the child's home and 
makes a diagnosis. In each such case the office record 
shows what disease the nurse " suspected," and what the 
physician actually found. 

All these individual records for the school year 1914-15 
were turned over to a member of the survey staff and were 
summarized. The results show that 60 per cent, of the sus- 
picions were fully confirmed by the diagnosis of the physi- 
cian, that in 23 per cent, of the cases in which the suspicion 
was not confirmed there existed a condition of disease or 
defect which called for medical attention, and that in only 
17 per cent, of the cases was there no need of a physician. 
On an average, therefore, five out of six cases reported 
by the nurses are found to need immediate medical care. 
This is certainly a splendid record. The contagious diseases 
discovered in the schools during the last year include, among 
others, the following: 

Chicken pox, 41 cases. Smallpox, 3 cases. 

Impetigo, 1 1 cases. Scarlet fever, 2 cases. 

Mumps, 57 cases. Diphtheria, 2 cases. 

Pink-eye, 43 cases. Measles, 2 cases. 

Scabies (itch), 22 cases. Ringworm, 7 cases. 
Whooping cough, 38 cases. 

In all probability each case discovered in the first stages 
in the schools meant the prevention of several additional 
cases. 

EFFECTIVENESS OF THE SCHOOL NURSE 

These findings regarding the ability of school nurses to 
detect contagious diseases in the early stages are fully in 
accord with the experience of other cities. No better evi- 
dence could be desired that tliis phase of the work can be 
adequately taken care of by school nurses. To employ ex- 
pensive physicians for the routine inspections w^ould be a 
waste of money. Even the best medical authorities admit 



Health Supervision 279 

that the well-trained school nurse acquires a degree of skill 
in recognizing the early symptoms of contagious disease 
which is not excelled by the average practicing physician. 
One explanation is the large amount of experience secured 
by the nurse in a relatively short period of time. She is 
likely, indeed, to meet more cases of whooping cough or 
measles in the early stages in a single month than the prac- 
ticing physician would ordinarily meet in the course of ten 
years. 

Another function well performed by the school nurses of 
Salt Lake City is that of vaccinating children against small- 
pox. Utah has no compulsory vaccination law and a major- 
ity of the school children have not been vaccinated, although 
no data were available to show the exact number of un- 
vaccinated. Prompt action is therefore necessary when a 
case has been discovered in the schools. To meet the situ- 
ation the nurses are allowed to perform, free of charge, 
vaccinations of school children who have been exposed to 
the disease. The practice is somewhat exceptional in the 
cities of the United States, largely because of the conserva- 
tism of many physicians who oppose it. There is absolutely 
no ground, however, for such opposition. Vaccinations are 
just as effective when performed gratis by the nurses as 
when performed by the physician at the rate of $2.00 per 
child. That they are also fully as safe is demonstrated by 
the fact that in the two years 191 3 and 1914, 1,331 vacci- 
nations were performed by the school nurses of Salt Lake 
City without serious complications in a single case. The 
practice should by all means be continued. 

EXPANSIONS PLANNED BY THE HEALTH COMMISSIONER 

The fact that the health work has thus far progressed 
little beyond the first stage is not offered as a criticism of 
those in charge of it. Because of possible misunderstanding 
and opposition, both on the part of the conservative element 
of the medical profession and of the public, it is often not 



28o School Organization and Administration 

the best policy to try to inaugurate at one stroke an ideal 
system of school health supervision. In a gradual expan- 
sion the wisdom of each step proves itself, and smooths the 
way for still further progress. 

This has marked the development of the department in 
Salt Lake City. First one nurse was appointed, then a sec- 
ond, and two years ago the number was increased to six. 
An effort will be made to add two more next year, and ulti- 
mately others until there shall be one nurse for about 2,000 
children. Arrangements have been made for opening a 
dental clinic at the central office in the immediate future. 
Temporarily the dental work will be done without expense 
to the city by members of the local dental association. This 
will finally result, without doul)t, in the employment of a 
regular school dentist. A similar arrangement is contem- 
plated which will make possible the opening of a medical 
clinic. 

It is evident, therefore, that where the system is new, as 
is the case here, it should be judged less by what it has 
already accomplished than by the limits which are set for 
future accomplishments. Judged by this standard the sys- 
tem of Salt Lake City merits a great deal of praise. The 
authorities in charge are fully cognizant of the work to be 
done, and appear to have the determination and the tact to 
bring about the desired expansions. The point of view is 
strictly in harmony with modern tendencies in child hygiene. 

HEALTH CONDITIONS OF SALT LAKE CITY SCHOOL CHILDREN 

In order to indicate some of the unsolved or only partly 
solved health problems among the school children, the two 
questionnaires reproduced as Tables XLVI and XLVII 
were sent to each teacher in the city. It will be noted that 
the data called for in the first questionnaire were secured 
by the teacher asking the questions of the children, and 
that the second questionnaire was filled out by the teachers 
on the basis oi their own observation. 



Health Supervision 281 

While, of course, absolute accuracy cannot be claimed for 
data gathered in this way, it is probable that in most cases 
they represent the facts fairly closely. Dr. E. B. Hoag, 
who has used similar question lists with more than 100,000 
school children in California and Minnesota, has always 
found that the results thus obtained do not differ materially 
from those secured by his actual medical examinations. 
Indeed, when the data from these question lists are compared 
with the statistics resulting from the medical examinations 
which have been given to millions of school children in hun- 
dreds of cities of the United States, Germany, France, Eng- 
land, Japan, Australia, and other countries, the amount of 
agreement is found to be remarkable. 

Summarizing the data on health conditions among the 
children, obtained from the questionnaires sent out, we get 
the following significant information: 

HEADACHES 

More than 26 per cent, of the children (4,409) have 
headaches often. This is about the usual percentage found. 
Dr. Hoag's figures for several other cities range from 20 
to 25 per cent. Headache is an indication that something 
is wrong, and when the trouble is chronic we are always 
justified in suspecting eye-strain, nervousness, constipation, 
or some kind of digestive disturbance. It is often associ- 
ated with poor nutrition and general weakness. 

EARS AND HEARING 

Seven and five tenths per cent, of the children (1,243) 
have earache often, 5.5 per cent. (942) have had at some 
time running of the ears, and 5.1 per cent. (883) have 
marked symptoms of imperfect hearing. Dr. Hoag's figures 
from other cities give 10 per cent, for earache, 3 per cent, 
for running of the ears, and about 4 per cent, for imperfect 
hearing. Earache often means an infection of the middle 



282 School Organization and Administration 

TABLE XLVI 

Health Questionnaire I 

(One to each teacher) 

Name of school Grade 

Room Name of teacher 

Total number pupils 

(Directions) Ask the children the following questions and record the results. 
It is important to ask the questions with the proper degree of seriousness, and 
to urge the pupils to answer as correctly as possible. 

1. How many have headache often (two or three times a month)? 

2. Howmany have earache often (two or three times a month)? 

3. How many sometimes have running of the ears? 

4. How many have had hearing tested sometime? 

5. How many have had hearing tested in this school year? 

6. How many have sore throat or colds frequently (two or three times a 
month)? 

7. How many have had adenoids or tonsils removed? 

8. How many have had adenoids or tonsils taken out in the last jear? . . . 

9. How many often have pain or watering of eyes? 

10. How many cannot easily read the writing on the blackboard? 

11. How many find that the print often seems to blur, or run together, or 
look double? 

12. How many have had the eyes tested sometime? 

13. How many have had the eyes tested in the last year? 

14. How many have gone to a dentist sometime? 

15. How many have gone to a dentist in the last year? 

16. How many have a toothbrush? 

15. Howmany have used a toothbrush in the last twenty-four hours? . . . 

18. How many have toothache often (two or three times a month?) .... 

19. How many eat breakfast every day? 

20. How many eat lunch every day? 



Health Supervision 283 



TABLE XLVII 

Health Questionnaire II 

(One to each teacher) 

Name of school Grade . . . Room 

Name of teacher Number of pupils 



{To be filled out without asking children. Accuracy important.) 

1. Number of pupils who have frequent or chronic difficulty in breathing 
through the nose 

2. Number who have frequent or chronic nasal discharge 

3. Number who have nasal or thick voice 

4. Number who show symptoms of imperfect hearing 

5. Number who stutter or stammer 

6. Number who show symptoms of eye defects (redness or watering of the 
eyes, squinting, frowning, cross-eye, holding book too near, miscalling well- 
known words, etc.) 

7. Number who wear glasses regularly 

8. Nimiber who have some marked peculiarity, such as irritability, mus- 
cular twitchings, nervousness, excessive timidity, tendency to cry without cause, 
tendency to worry, moroscness, moral abnormality, etc 

g. Number who show marked lack of mental alertness 

10. Number who are noticeably lacking in play activity 

11. Number who are delicate or frequently ill 

12. Number whose posture is habitually faulty 



ear, and the discharge which sometimes follows the ear- 
ache means that the pus has broken through the drum. The 
result is likely to be impaired hearing for life. In any 
school system, anywhere, tests of hearing will show that 
from 3 per cent, to 5 per cent, of the children have seriously 
defective hearing in one or both ears, and that at least 
I per cent, have not over one-fourth normal hearing. 

In Salt Lake City only 13.6 per cent, of the children have 



284 School Organization and Administration 

ever had the hearing tested, and only 2.6 per cent, within the 
last year. Each child ought to have a hearing test every 
year. Such can be given by the teachers, under proper 
supervision, and the time required for such tests is negli- 
gible. Annual tests of hearing are required by law in 
several states. 

Usually a fourth of one per cent, are found to be so 
nearly deaf as to warrant their removal to special classes. 
At this rate the number in Salt Lake City who need such 
attention is not far from 50, or enough for two or three 
special classes. 

EYES AND VISION 

Twenty-two per cent, of the children testify that the 
print sometimes blurs, 23 per cent, that the eyes sometimes 
pain, and ii.i per cent, are said by the teachers to show 
symptoms of subnormal vision. Thirty-three per cent, have 
sometime had the eyes tested, y.y per cent, within the last 
year. These results agree closely with the figures in other 
cities. It is safe to say that in any city at least 15 per cent, 
of the children have imperfect vision and that at least 10 
per cent, ought to wear glasses. In this city only 2.y per 
cent, of the children enrolled have glasses, which means 
that three-fourths of the cases of defective vision have 
been neglected (probably about 1,460). 

In order to check up the data secured from the teachers, 
the McCallie vision test was given by Mr. Williams, of the 
survey staff, to 510 children. As shown in the following 
chart, 15 per cent, of these children had defective vision, 
while only 3.5 per cent, of those tested were wearing glasses. 

Tests of this kind should be given to every child each 
school year. Like hearing tests, these are required by law in 
a number of states. They can be given readily by the 
teachers after a little instruction. Teachers cannot deter- 
mine the cause of the defective vision, but they can usually 
determine whether a defect exists. The oculist will do the 
rest. 



Health Supervision 



285 




WEARING 
GLASSES, 



Fig. 42. Showing the Results of the Examination of Children's 
Eyes in Salt Lake City 

(McCallie Vision Test) 



NOSE AND THROAT TROUBLES 

The returns show that 19.8 per cent, have sore throat 
often, 8.6 per cent, have obstructed breathing, and 5.7 per 
cent, have a marked nasal voice (indicative of obstructed 
breathing). It is certain, therefore, that not less than 10 
per cent, of the children (2,000) have neglected defects of 
nose or throat. The number would be far greater but for 
the fact that another 10 per cent, have had adenoids or 



286 School Organization and Administration 

tonsils removed. As with other defects, the percentage 
having nose or throat trouble agrees closely with similar 
data from other cities. 

The injuries produced by such defects are so well recog- 
nized that extended discussion here is not necessary. It is 
sufikient to point out that obstructed breathing nearly al- 
ways reduces the lung capacity and retards mental and 
physical growth. Many a " backward " child can be made 
over by the removal of breathing obstructions. Neglected 
adenoids lay the foundation for a number of constitutional 
weaknesses which may not become apparent until adult life. 
The trouble often spreads to the ear. Most cases of partial 
deafness can be traced to neglected throat troubles. 

TEETH 

Fortunately for our purposes the teeth of 4,463 of 
the school children of the city had recently been examined 
by dentists from tlie local dental association. These in- 
cluded all in attendance at the Riverside, Jackson, Whittier, 
Lowell, Lafayette, Poplar Grove, and Wasatch schools. 
The results were summarized by us for the schools sepa- 
rately, and are shown in Table XLVIIL Some of the 
most striking facts shown in this table are the following : 

That with 19 per cent, the general condition of the mouth 
is distinctly " bad," and with 34.1 per cent, only " fair." 

That the condition of the gums is " bad " with 9.7 per 
cent., and only " fair " with 17.4 per cent. 

That 32.1 per cent, have malocclusion. 

That the teeth of 24.8 per cent, are badly in need of 
cleaning. 

That the 4,363 children have a total of 16,612 carious 
(decaying) teeth, or an average number of 2,-7 carious 
teeth per child. 

That 1,986 teeth were found needing extraction. 

That 43.5 per cent, of the children do not use a tooth- 
brush. 



Health Supervision 



287 






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288 School Organization and Administration 

The results of the health questionnaire submitted to the 
teachers by the survey commission brought out the following 
additional facts: 

That 25.1 per cent, of the children often have toothache. 

That 36.8 per cent, have never been to a dentist. 

That 64 per cent, have not been to a dentist within the 

last year. 
That nearly 19 per cent, do not own a toothbrush. 
That 50 per cent, do not use a toothbrush regularly. 

The above facts are in harmony with countless other in- 
vestigations. It is always found that 75 to 90 per cent, of 
the school children have at least one decaying tooth, and 
that half the children have ordinarily from three to five. 
Comparison of the different schools will show that while 
some schools are better than others, the conditions on the 
whole are very general. 

It is evident, therefore, that a campaign is in order for 
the improvement of the children's teeth. Nowhere else will 
the proverbial " ounce of prevention " go farther. Dental 
caries, of all the common defects, is the most widespread. 
It is often called " the people's disease." Moreover, it is 
largely a disease of childhood and youth. If teeth are kept 
in repair till adult life they do not readily decay. If neg- 
lected till the age of 20, they are often beyond salvage. A 
dollar spent at the right time will save many dollars of 
dental bills later. The best time to treat toothache is before 
it occurs. When a tooth has come to the aching point the 
best time for saving it has gone by. 

Since parents often do not appreciate the truth of these 
facts, and do not realize the great value of sound teeth for 
health, it is necessary for the school to make frequent dental 
examinations of all the children, and to urge parents to 
have defective teeth treated. Where parents cannot afford 
to pay dental bills the work should be done gratis by school 
dentists. The school dentist is indeed as indispensable as 
the school doctor. If not all the dental work can be done at 



Health Supervision 289 

once, it is well to concentrate on the younger children first, 
as this is the place where a given amount of preventive work 
goes the farthest. 

GENERAL WEAKNESS 

The study shows that 5.3 per cent, of the children are 
classified by the teachers as " frequently ill," 3.4 per cent, 
as " lacking in physical energy," and 8.5 per cent, as " not 
mentally alert. We are justified in concluding that prob- 
ably 10 per cent, in all, or over 2,000 children, are physi- 
cally much below par. These conditions are not peculiar 
to Salt Lake City, but have been found everywhere, includ- 
ing such cities as Pasadena, Berkeley, Oakland, Los An- 
geles, and hundreds of eastern cities. Children of this 
class, more than any other, need constant health supervision. 
They are the ones most injured by poor ventilation, bad 
lighting, lack of opportunity for play, etc. To look after 
their welfare is far more important than the control of con- 
tagious diseases, important as that may be. 

MENTALLY OR MORALLY EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN 

Ten per cent, of the children are placed by the teachers ni 
this group, which includes children who are exceptionally 
nervous, irritable, morose, lacking in self-control, prone 
to morbid worry, or morally abnormal. It is an important 
function of the department of health supervision to give 
the teachers instruction and advice in the handling of such 
children. The child who is misunderstood at home and in 
the school is in danger of developing mental or moral 
traits which will make his life miserable or futile. 

SPEECH DEFECTS 

One and eight-tenths per cent, of the children are classi- 
fied as stutterers, which is almost exactly the number found 
in several extensive investigations elsewhere. 



290 School Organization and Administration 

The stuttering child is greatly handicapped in life if he 
does not recover. Spontaneous recovery often does not 
occur, and as a result the child's vocational opportunities 
are greatly limited. At present little is being done in this 
country for stuttering children. Their treatment offers a 
free field for quacks and charlatans, whose prey they often 
become. 

The experience of other countries, however, demonstrates 
that 80 per cent, to 85 per cent, of cases of stuttering among 
school children can be cured. Several countries of Europe 
conduct special classes for their benefit. Records show that 
cure is usually effected within three to six months. It is 
hoped that American cities will soon see the wisdom of 
this example. 

MALNUTRITION 

Figures were not obtainable directly on this point, for 
the reason that teachers are not able to ascertain the facts. 
In some of the schools, however, the experienced eye can 
detect large numbers of children who are evidently ill- 
nourished. It is hardly likely that this is due in many 
cases to actual insufficiency of food. There are many 
other causes of malnutrition, such as unwise choice of 
foods, improper cooking, weakness of the powers of diges- 
tion and assimilation, etc. Parental negligence is often to 
blame. The results of the health (|uestionnaire show that 
1 1.4 per cent, of the children do not breakfast regularly, 
and that 9.1 per cent, sometimes miss lunch. The health de- 
partment has no duty more important than that of identify- 
ing the ill-nourished children, and the school department no 
more urgent duty than that of ameliorating their condition. 

School lunches are one means of helping ill-nourished 
children. Lunches ought to be served in several schools, 
such as Fremont, Bonneville, Franklin, Lincoln, Jackson, 
and Riverside. Where the children cannot afford to pay 
the cost of a meal, the expense should be borne by the board 



Health Supervision 



291 



of education. Much good can also be accomplished by 
means of health leaflets issued to parents, setting forth in 
simple language the most important rules for the care and 
feeding of children. The school can cooperate further by- 
giving greater emphasis to domestic science, play, personal 
hygiene, etc. 



HAVE HEADACHE OFTEN 
HAVE EARACHE OFTEN 
DEFECTIVE HEARING 
DEFECTIVE VISION 
SORE THROAT OFTEN 
OBSTRUCTED BREATHING 
BAD CONDITIOM or MOUTH 
HAV[N[Y[RB[[NT0aBENTI5T 
D0N0THAVEAT00THERU5t1 
MNOTUSETOOlUBRUStlRI&UlARLY 
FREQUENTLY ILL 
NOT MENTALLY ALERT 
MENTALLY PECULIAR 
DO NOT BREAKFAST RKUIARLY 
SOMETIMES fAISS LUNCH 
STUTTER OR 5TAIAIAER 


10 20 30 40 50% 




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Fig. 43. Showing Some Health Conditions among the School 
Children of Salt Lake City 



HEALTH WORK SHOULD BE EXTENDED 

The foregoing discussion gives an idea of the broad re- 
sponsibilities of a school health department. The control 
of contagious disease is but one of its many functions, and 
by no means the most important. There are at least a half 



292 School Organization and Administration 

dozen other lines of work fully as important. The old con- 
ception, which would limit the function of the school to 
the cultivation of the child's mind, is now obsolete. Chil- 
dren should not be taught as though they were disembodied 
spirits. In thousands of cases defective bodies largely nullify 
educational efiforts. The degree of social responsibility for 
children's health is no less than for their intellectual devel- 
opment, and it is becoming increasingly clear that the best 
place to lodge this responsibility for children of school 
age is with a well-organized department of school health 
supervision. 



CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 

As a result of this study the following conclusions and 
recommendations seem warranted: 

1. The school health work is excellent as far as it goes. 
The handling of contagious disease is according to the most 
approved methods, and other valuable work is being done, 
liowever, the scope of the department should be enlarged so 
as to make possible greater attention to conditions of defect 
other than contagious disease. 

2. The needed expansions would include : 

(a) Thorough medical examination of each child at least 
every second year. 

(b) Annual tests of vision and hearing by the teachers. 

(c) Improvement of conditions of the teeth and mouth. 

(d) Extension of the follow-up service. 

(e) The hygienic supervision of athletics and physical 
education. 

( f ) Systematic instruction of the teachers in matters per- 
taining to child hygiene. 

(g) The establishment by the board of education of 
school lunches, school baths, increased play facili- 
ties, open-air schools, and other special classes. 



Health Supervision 293 

Facts have been presented which show that chronic physi- 
cal defects exist in great number in the chihh-en of the city, 
and that the health work thus far undertaken has given only 
minor attention to diese. 

3. The necessary extensions of the work will require a 
number of additional physicians and nurses, and at least 
two half-time dentists. The annual budget for this work- 
should not be less than $15,000, and it ought to approxi- 
mate $20,000. 

4. It is recommended that for the present the work re- 
main under the charge of the department of health, particu- 
larly since the board of education would find some difficulty 
in supporting it on the right scale. There is every reason 
to believe that the present administration of tlie board of 
health will bring about needed expansions as rapidly as 
possible. It should be borne in mind, however, that a 
change of administration in the city health department may 
at any time make it imperative for the board of education 
to assume control.^ 

^ Further data in support of the recommendations made in this chapter will 
be found in the following books, published by Houj^hton Mifflin Company: 
The Hygiene of the School Child, by Lewis M. Terman; 11 call h Work in the 
School, by Hoag and Terman; The Teacher's Health, by Lewis M. Terman. 



CHAPTER XII 

PHYSICAL EDUCATION, PLAYGROUND ACTIVI- 
TIES, AND HYGIENE TEACHING 

I. Physical Education 

THE physical-training work as carried on at present in 
the grades below the high school is of limited value. 
The fault lies not so much in the methods employed to at- 
tain the end sought as in the fundamentally wrong concep- 
tion as to what the purpose of a department of physical 
education should be. 

In order to make the criticism clear we may distinguish 
two types of physical education : 

TWO TYPES OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION 

The first relies chiefly on indoor callisthenic exercises, 
marches, drills, etc., and on mild forms of directed play 
which can be carried on in the classrooms. This type is 
inevitably formal, makes little appeal to the child's interests, 
fails to arouse initiative, has no moral or social value, and 
makes little or no contribution to health, the chief end of 
physical education. The most that can be said for it is 
that children occasionally welcome it as a relaxation from 
more strenuous mental work, and that certain phases of 
it (dancing, marching, etc.) have an aesthetic value. It is 
a type which once had wider vogue than at present, though 
it lingers still in occasional school systems where German 
ideals of formal drill and discipline have not been replaced 
by American ideals of personal initiative and individuality. 

294 



Physical Education 295 

The second type places the emphasis on vigorous outdoor 
recreation, inckiding spontaneous play, organized group 
games, and other playground activities. Recreation of this 
kind appeals to the most fundamental interests of child life, 
cultivates initiative, affords constant and powerful training 
in moral behavior, stimulates the development of social as 
contrasted with non-social or anti-social traits, and pro- 
motes health as nothing else can. This is the kind of 
physical education which is being fostered so well by the 
rapidly developing playground movement. It is unques- 
tionably and justifiably destined to supplant everywhere the 
more formal type of physical training which we have first 
described. 

These two types are not necessarily mutually exclusive, 
but may, of course, be combined in various proportions. 
The contrast serves, however, to make clear a fundamental 
distinction, and is especially serviceable in any evaluation 
of the physical training given in Salt Lake City. 

THE TYPE IN SALT LAKE CITY 

Here the work is molded mainly and purposely after the 
first type. Practically all of it is carried on indoors, either 
in the hallways or the classrooms. The supervisor and 
assistant go from room to room, taking each class separately 
for drills, marches, dances, callisthenic exercises, and in- 
door games. Teachers are instructed how to carry on these 
exercises, and are expected to give them daily if the special 
instructor is not present. Many of these exercises, as given 
both by the special instructors and the regular teachers, 
were witnessed by all the members of the survey commis- 
sion. They were found, with the exception of the dancing, 
uninteresting to the children, formal, void of hygienic 
value, and barren of the other results for which a depart- 
ment of physical education is supposed to exist. The so- 
called " indoor games " are for the most part games in 
name only. They are not only formal and dead but often 



296 School Organization and Administration 

inane. The following is offered as an average and fair 
example of the kind of physical education carried on in the 
grades below the high school. 

AN AVERAGE AND FAIR EXAMPLE OF THE INDOOR GAMES 

Time, 9.30 a.m. Place, regular classroom, somewhat 
dusty and with windows closed. (Outdoors the air is 
balmy and the school yard is flooded with sunshine.) Class, 
fourth or fifth grade boys and girls. Purpose of the games 
was stated as " relaxation from mental strain." (The 
school has been in session 30 minutes, and the pupils have 
just gotten well down to work.) 

Four games are played in succession. The first, which 
was the best, may be described as a " writing relay." The 
front pupil in each row is given a piece of chalk. At a 
given signal this is to be handed back over the right shoul- 
der to the pupil behind, and by that one to the next, and so 
on until it reaches the last pupil, who then starts it forward 
over the left shoulder. When the chalk has made the 
round trip, back over the right shoulder and forward over the 
left, the pupil in the front seat rushes to the blackboard and 
hastily writes the name of the school. Meanwhile the other 
pupils in the row move forward one seat, leaving only the 
rear seat vacant. After hastily scratching the word on the 
l)lackboard the pupil rushes to the back seat and passes the 
chalk forward again over the left shoulder, and when it 
reaches the one in the first seat the process of writing the 
word, moving forward, and once more relaying the chalk to 
the front is repeated. This is kept up until all the pupils 
of each row have had a chance to scrawl the name of the 
school on the lilnckboard. An attempt is then made to judge 
the writing of tlic pupils of each row according to merit, but 
it is found that all of it is equally without merit owing to 
the haste with which it was done. 

The second " game " may be called an " eraser relay." It 
consisted chiefly of passing an eraser back along the row 



Physical Education 297 

over one shoulder and forward over the other, with a httle 
turning and shifting of seats during the process. No con- 
test element or other motive was evident, and the main 
result of the game was to thicken the already dust-laden 
air of the schoolroom with clouds of chalk particles raised 
by the dropping of erasers. 

The third exercise is impossible to describe because it 
apparently involved no definite procedure, and no logical 
beginning, middle, or end. It consisted in having children 
attend, turn, stand, exchange seats; then stand, turn, and 
sit again, all by staccato command. The rule for exchang- 
ing seats v^^as not clear to the observer or to the children, 
most of whom got lost and confused in the process. When 
this had been kept up about two minutes the observer was 
asked to judge which row had done best, but he was obliged 
to confess that he had seen nothing which could be judged. 

The fourth game was a running relay, from the front to 
the back of the room and return, involving again the trans- 
fer of an eraser at each link of the relay. It is unnecessary 
to describe it in detail. Like the others, it was a mockery 
of health-giving exercise and a travesty of real play. 

The pupils returned to their regular work, with apparent 
relief, and for the remaining two hours of the forenoon in- 
haled at each breath probably ten to twenty times as many 
injurious dust particles as would have been the case had 
the exercises been taken out of doors, or not taken at all. 

OTHER EXERCISES SEEN 

The graded course in dancing admits of more favorable 
comment. The dances were usually pretty, graceful, and 
much enjoyed by the pupils. It is recommended that this 
phase of the physical education be retained, but that always, 
when possible, the dancing be carried out in the open air 
instead of in the halls, as at present. The desirability of 
more attention to folk-dancing- may be suggested. 

Most of the other exercises given in the hallways should 



298 School Organization and Administration 

be abandoned, or if any are retained they should be given 
out of doors, weather permitting. But notliing can be said 
in favor of such an exercise as the following, wherever 
given : 

Second-grade class, in a basement hallway dark enough 
to require artificial lighting; time 10 a.m.; weather outside 
beautifully clear and warm. The children are arranged in 
a circle, and following the example of the leader each holds 
his hands in front of chest, elbows flexed, and repeats in a 
sing-song tone, " One, two, three, four " (turning the 
hands over one another so as to make one revolution at 
each count) ; " One, two, three, four " (this time rotating 
the hands four times in the reversed direction) ; "One, 
two " (bringing the two fists together twice on a horizon- 
tal line) ; " One, two " (striking one fist twice on top of 
the other) ; " Tra la la, tra la la " (moving forward a few 
steps). The purpose of this exercise was stated to be 
" health," but the observer was somewhat at a loss to see 
the connection, and the one in charge did not seem able to 
make it clear. 

The above concrete descriptions will serve to illustrate 
the type of work which was witnessed over and over again 
in all parts of the city by the members of the survey staff. 
The examples given are in no way whatever exceptional. It 
is unnecessary to dwell on the futility of so-called physical 
training of this type, or to emphasize the absurdity of 
carrying on the exercises in dusty classrooms and dark 
basement halls. There may be some excuse for indoor 
physical training in the schools located near the center of 
New York City ; there is no excuse in Salt Lake City, even 
though some of the school grounds are of scanty dimen- 
sions. It is an open question whether most of the physical 
training witnessed was not more injurious to the pupils than 
beneficial. 



Physical Education 299 



CHARACTER OF THE YARD PLAY 

Playground activities are too much neglected. Children 
on the school grounds were rarely seen to engage in real 
play during recess periods. Jumping up and down, push- 
ing and shoving, promiscuous chasing, and boisterous 
horse-play were much more in evidence than play. Just 
standing around was still more common. Theoretically 
there exists a curriculum of plays and games for the chil- 
dren of the grades, but it does not seem to be in operation. 
The indoor exercises of the formal kind have been given 
the right of way for the reason that they are frankly 
claimed to have the greater value. 

A partial exception should be made in regard to the inter- 
school games of baseball and basketball, which occur during 
the last month of the school year. These are fairly numer- 
ous, are well managed, and seem to arouse much interest. 
Grades five to eight are represented in the games, though 
of course only a minority of the children in these grades 
can belong to the teams. 

On the whole, however, and particularly for the lower 
grades, the work of the physical-training department needs 
to be reorganized on a different basis. Its purpose should 
be not merely relaxation from mental work, but the pro- 
motion of health through vigorous outdoor exercise, and 
the development of such a love of outdoor plays and sports 
as will function through life as a cheap form of health 
insurance. We are rapidly coming to understand that plays 
and games have an educational value along moral and social 
lines hardly less important than their hygienic value. In- 
dividual initiative, the give-and-take spirit, resourcefulness, 
ready judgment, willingness to subordinate personal to 
group interests, loyalty, cooperation, and social understand- 
ing are all significantly promoted by the right kind of play. 

To insure such a rich development of the play life needs 
to be encouraged and directed. Without direction, play 
on the average school ground is likely to be desultory, lack- 



300 School Organization and Administration 

ing in variety, and almost void of educational sig-nificance. 
It is of course not necessary or desirable that play super- 
vision be carried to the point where spontaneity and initia- 
tive are destroyed. It is not argued that children should 
be driven through games held as set and formal exercises. 
What is meant is that children should be taught and en- 
couraged to play a large variety of outdoor games, selected 
with special reference to definite stages of development of 
the play interests and physical capacities. 



PLAY TEACHERS NEEDED 

To this end there should be play leaders on every play- 
ground during recesses and, if possible, before and after 
school hours. In every school there are teachers tempera- 
mentally adapted to this kind of work. One energetic 
full-time assistant, working under the direction of a super- 
visor of physical education, could furnish these teacher 
play-leaders the necessary instruction for carrying on the 
work. Such an assistant could probably be secured for 
about $1,500. In addition it might be necessary to pay 
two or three teachers at each school a slight increase of sal- 
ary for their service as play leaders during intermission, 
or a somewhat more substantial increase for play super- 
vision after school hours. 

Over all these, and as guiding spirit of their work, would 
be the general supervisor of physical education, whose sal- 
ary should approximate that which is now paid, and whose 
duties should include, as now, supervision of physical edu- 
cation in the high schools. Unlimited energy, the play 
spirit, social tact, and moral leadership are among the es- 
sential qualifications for such a position. The director of 
physical education who is endowed with the proper force 
of character and with an inspiring personality exerts a 
direct and wholesome influence on every child in the school 
system. Under such an organization much could be ac- 



Physical Education 301 

complished, notwithstanding the inadequacy of playground 
facihties in many parts of the city. 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN THE HIGH SCHOOLS 

There are four assistants in physical training in the high 
schools, one for boys and one for girls in each of the two 
schools. The women assistants are paid $800 and $1,000; 
the men, $1,300 and $1,400. The force is adec|uate in size, 
but the lower salaries are not large enough to retain the 
services of teachers who are properly equipped and suitably 
endowed for the work. 



THE MILITARY DRILL 

The main criticism of the physical training in the high 
schools, however, is that the system of compulsory military 
instruction employed monopolizes the time of the boys to 
such an extent (4j^ hours a week) that the real work of 
physical education is necessarily relegated to a minor place. 
Military training may liave, and probably does have, a cer- 
tain amount of value, but a compulsory system which 
takes so much of the pupil's time and energy as to reduce 
other forms of physical training to an extreme minimum 
is of questionable worth. Military drill cannot compete 
with games in the cultivation of such desirable traits as 
initiative, resourcefulness, social cooperation, group loyalty, 
and love of play. Moreover, it is of doubtful value from 
the hygienic point of view. The severity of the drill (Butt's 
Manual, designed for use with adult soldiers, is closely fol- 
lowed) would not tax the strength and endurance of the 
mature soldier who has been picked on the basis of physi- 
cal fitness, but it is entirely unsuited to the physical capacity 
of many of the younger, weaker, and immature high-school 
boys. 

Such a system of uniform and vigorous exercise for 
young and old, weak and strong, mature and immature, de- 



302 School Organization and Administration 

fective and sound, transgresses the most fundamental laws 
of physical training. The weight of the gun which is car- 
ried (not far from eight pounds) is entirely too great for 
the lighter boys, and the necessity of carrying it always on 
the same shoulder predisposes, in the case of young boys 
whose bones are still flexible, to spinal curvature and de- 
formity of the chest. The clothing required is not such as 
should be worn during vigorous exercise, and bathing facili- 
ties are not sufficient to enable all to take a bath immediately 
after the drill. Add to these considerations the fact that 
the military training is not under the direction of the de- 
partment of physical education, and is therefore carried on 
without expert hygienic or medical supervision of any kind, 
and we have a condition which is positively pernicious and 
dangerous. 

A member of the school system, who has had ample op- 
portunity to learn the facts, informed members of the 
survey staff that no less than eighteen cases of faintings 
during or after drill had come to his attention. These had 
all occurred in the last three years. Faintings and tempo- 
rary prostrations, however, are not as serious as the more 
concealed and latent injuries likely to be produced in those 
who have some organic impairment, such as heart lesion, 
weak lungs, diseased kidneys, etc. 

The military drill of the high schools is open to criticism 
on still other grounds. The cost of a uniform is not far 
from $i6, which is fully equal to the average cost of text- 
books for three years. This must be a serious burden to 
many pupils, and as long as this expenditure is compulsory 
the high school can hardly be regarded as a free school. 
Many would also question the political and moral justifica- 
tion of military training in the public schools of a demo- 
cratic and peace-loving nation, but as this aspect of the 
question is open to debate it will not be urged in this 
report. 



Physical Education 303 



BETTER PHYSICAL TRAINING DESIRABLE 

There are other reasons of sufficient number and cogency 
to justify the recommendation that the system of military 
training be dropped, and that the time be given over to 
more educational hues of physical training, including gym- 
nastics and organized games and sports under the leader- 
ship of well-trained and well-paid instructors. 

The present corps of instructors is adequate in number 
to take care of the proposed enlargement of the physical- 
training work. It is well to emphasize, however, that the 
high-school teacher of physical training should have as 
large a salary as other members of the high-school teaching 
force. It is harder, in fact, to find a first-class teacher in 
this line than in Latin, mathematics, or history. 

It would not be consonant with the aim of this report to 
describe in detail the particular activities which the depart- 
ment of physical training should carry on in the high schools. 
All of this can safely be left to the instructors, providing 
proper care has been exercised in choosing them. In all 
cases they should have had special training for such work. 
No greater mistake could be made than to select a young 
college graduate merely on the strength of his enviable 
athletic record. The professional training demanded for 
this work includes courses in personal hygiene, public 
health, advanced physiology with special emphasis on the 
physiology of exercise, the theory and practice of physical 
education, and the psychology and hygiene of adolescence. 
All the leading universities of the country give such courses, 
and only candidates with a liberal professional training of 
this type should be considered. In order to secure and re- 
tain such persons, however, it will certainly be necessary 
to go beyond some of the salaries now paid to the teachers 
of physical training in the high schools. 



304 School Organization and Administration 



2, Playground Activities 
small school playgrounds 

Owing to short-sightedness in earher years, Salt Lake 
City is very poorly supplied with playground space. This 
condition presents a surprising and painful contrast with 
the spacious residence lots throughout the city and with the 
absence of crowded tenement districts. So serious has been 
the neglect that the playground facilities are not superior 
to those of many cities far older and many times as popu- 
lous. The situation is fully appreciated by the present board 
of education, and everythhig possible is being done to pro- 
vide the newer schools with liberal playgrounds. The task 
of making good the neglect of former years still remains, 
however, and presents a serious financial and educational 
problem. 

Table XXXIX, on page 231, shows the number of square 
feet per child in the entire site of each school, including the 
space occupied by the building, and Figure T^y, on page 232, 
shows the percentage of children attending schools which 
have playgrounds of various amounts of space per child. 

It will be seen from this table that the following schools 
present the worst conditions in this respect: Emerson, 
Grant, Fremont, Oquirrh, Longfellow, Lafayette, Lowell, 
Franklin, Wasatch, and Hamilton. Webster, Sumner, Lin- 
coln, Forest. Jefiferson, and Poplar Grove are only a little 
better ofT. In several of these the grounds could still be 
enlarged by the purchase, at fairly reasonable figures, of 
adjacent unoccupied or little-improved lots. 

In the erection of future school buildings in the outlying 
districts there will be no excuse for failure to provide ample 
room. Five acres should be considered the minimum for 
schools which are likely to enroll any considerable number 
of pupils in the next fifty or one hundred years. In a rapidly 
growing community such as Salt Lake City the danger is 



Playground Activities 305 

always on the side of short-sighted economy. A mistake 
of this kind becomes increasingly deplorable as the years 
go by, until, after a few generations, the situation is both 
acute and irremediable. It is a sacred duty to provide not 
only for the welfare of our own children, but also for the 
welfare of those who are to follow. A board of education 
which fails of its duty in this regard will some day merit 
and probably receive the curses of those whom its negli- 
gence has defrauded. 

LARGER USE OF PLAYGROUNDS DESIRABLE 

Munition has alread}^ been made of the unsatisfactory use 
the playgrounds are put to during school hours. This fault 
seems to have developed mainly in recent years and is one 
which can be largely remedied by a reorganization of the 
department of physical education along the lines already 
proposed. 

The use of the playground out of school hours is still 
more important. At present school grounds valued at ap- 
proximately a half-million dollars are idle and unproductive 
a large part of the day. The real waste is infinitely greater 
than the corresponding interest loss on an unproductive 
financial investment of a commercial kind, for it is a waste 
of health and of educational opportunity which cannot be 
measured in dollars and cents. The remedy is to open the 
playgrounds for supervised play after school hours. It 
would be possible to secure regular teachers for this after- 
school work by paying a small additional salary, say $30 
per month for two hours each afternoon and half days on 
Saturday. 

On this basis the total expense to the city each school 
year would not exceed $6,000 for twenty such playground 
assistants. This is far less than the interest on the value of 
the grounds for that part of the school year during which 
thev are unused. 



3o6 School Organization arid Administration 



VACATION PLAYGROUND ACTIVITIES 

A number of playgrounds have been kept open during 
the summer, and provided with play facilities by the joint 
action of the board of education and the city park commis- 
sion. This work should be extended, and should by all 
means be taken over entirely by the board of education. Its 
control belongs there as much as does the control of the 
school plant during the school year, and the unified control 
will be much cheaper for the city in the end. 

The present division of playground control between the 
park commission and the board of education has led to 
an absurd and ridiculous situation. The park commission 
equips a number of school yards with playground apparatus 
for use during the summer, but when school begins the 
apparatus is gathered up by the park commission and 
stored away for safe keeping until the following summer. 
The same children are there, and the same play needs are 
present, but the board of education is now in control, and 
so, in order to facilitate the bookkeeping of the city depart- 
ments the apparatus is gathered up and carted off. The 
only way for the board of education to meet the issue and 
to perform its obligations to the recreational needs of 
children is to take over the entire responsibility of the 
school playgrounds and keep them running twelve months 
in the year. This will involve some expense for salaries, 
and will necessitate the purchase of a good deal of play- 
ground apparatus, but it is the only solution. 

It is not deemed necessary to argue here the general ques- 
tion as to the desirability of ample playgrounds and in- 
creased playground supervision. Every one who is ac- 
cpiainted with recent developments in the playground move- 
ment knows that this c(uestion has been settled once for all. 
Almost every city in the country, which is not educationally 
benighted, has accepted the situation and is making an effort 
to enlarge and improve its recreational facilities. Any other 



Hygiene Teaching 



307 



attitude is not only bad educationally, but bad socially, mor- 
ally, and economically as well. 



3. Hygiene Teaching 

THE present course OF INSTRUCTION 

The course of study in physiology and hygiene is well 
planned and modern in every respect. The texts, which 
could hardly have been better chosen, include the following: 



MINUTES PERWffK 
XOO 



ISO 



100 



50 















































— 










-4 


^^ 


-]V 


m 


' 












n 


^ 


m 


i 


^ 


-- 




t. 


— 


— 


r 


^ " 


-A^^ 

-"^i- ^ 


E — 



MAXIMUM 



MEDIUM 
MINIFAUtA 



ABABABABAB/VBABAB 

I n HI u :ff "51 M 3zni 

Fig. 44. Showing Minutes per Week Devoted to Instruction m 
Physiology and Hygiene 



Gulick's Good Health (grades 3 and 4), Gulick's Town and 
City (grades 5 and 6A), Gulick's The Body and Its De- 
fenses (grade 6B), and Ritchie's Primer 'of Sanitation 
(grades 7 and 8). In the first two grades the hygiene in- 
struction properly consists of frequent talks, simple in na- 
ture, but definitely planned so as to acquaint the child with 
a fairly wide range of elementary health laws. Throughout 



3o8 School Organization and Administration 

the course, hygiene instruction rightly takes precedence over 
physiology and anatomy. 

The time given to the subject is on the whole hardly ade- 
quate. In certain schools especially is this true. The dis- 
tribution of time devoted to hygiene among the various 
schools is represented for the different grades separately in 
the preceding chart (Fig. 44). The middle line shows the 
median amount of time per week for the city as a whole, 
the lower line the amount for the school giving least, and 
the upper line the amount for the school giving most time 
to the subject, in all cases the time including both recitation 
and study periods. 

PRACTICAL INSTRUCTION 

All together about a dozen hygiene lessons were witnessed 
in whole or in part by the various members of the survey 
staff. The instruction ranged from excellent to mediocre, 
but on the whole was of superior quality. Especially com- 
mendable was the effort, frequently observed, to make the 
hygiene instruction carry over into the everyday habits of 
the children. The children in one school (and this may have 
been true in other schools also) had been organized into 
a clean-up brigade, and were engaged in abating such nui- 
sances and dangers as dirty streets, unclean meat shops, 
and breeding places for flies and mosquitoes. The board 
of health lends its active support to such work, and stands 
ready to invoke the authority of the law, if necessary, in 
order to remedy the evils disclosed by the school pupils. 
Work of this kind goes beyond mere instruction in hygiene 
and becomes training for effective citizenship. 

Another well-directed effort toward making hygiene in- 
struction practical was found in a school where the teachers, 
acting under the direction of the principal, require the 
everyday practice of personal cleanliness as a necessary 
condition to receiving a passing grade in the subject. In 
other instances, however, the lessons were bookish and the- 



Hygiene Teaching 309 

oretical. That greater emphasis could well be placed on 
making the hygiene instruction practical is illustrated by 
such facts as the following: that only 50 per cent, of the 
pupils in the grades use a toothbrush regularly; that 63 
per cent, have not been to a dentist in the last year and that 
36.8 per cent, have never been to one; that in several of 
the schools personal uncleanliness and lack of neatness are 
common among the children. In many rooms the last is 
attested by strong and disagreeable odors emanating from 
the unclean bodies and clothing. 



THE BUILDINGS NEGATIVE THE INSTRUCTION 

In this connection it is to be regretted that the schools 
themselves do not set better examples of hygiene. The ef- 
fectiveness of hygiene instruction is weakened if it is car- 
ried on in school buildings where the floors are dirty, where 
the feather duster still lingers, where walls and ceilings are 
discolored, where classrooms and halls are dark and dingy, 
where physical training is unnecessarily carried on indoors, 
where bathing facilities are lacking, where filthy roller 
towels are in evidence, where toilets are dark, unclean, loud- 
smelling, and crowded, or where disgusting economies are 
practiced in the supply of toilet paper. Some of these ex- 
amples are before the children in every school, and certain 
schools are guilty of every sin above listed. 

It must never be forgotten that the teaching of hygiene 
and physiology is to be judged solely by its actual influence 
on the lives of the pupils. However ideal the course of 
study and the actual instruction, from an academic stand- 
point, the aim of the work is attained only in so far as 
practical results are secured. A little more insistence on 
this point of view, together with the improvement of hy- 
gienic practice on the part of the school, will add greatly 
to the efficiency of the hygiene instruction. 



3IO School Organization and Administration 

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS 

On the basis of the results of this chapter the survey 
makes the following recommendations as to needs and lines 
of future development : 

1. Physical education as carried on below the high school 
is based on a fundamental misconception as to the true pur- 
pose of such work. In the main it is extremely formal, is 
carried on chiefly indoors, and has little significance for 
health. The work should be entirely reorganized and di- 
rected along the lines of outdoor play and other recrea- 
tional activities. The instruction in dancing, however, is 
good and should be retained, with somewhat more attention 
to folk-dancing. 

2. The playgrounds in about half of the schools are ex- 
tremely inadequate, and insufficient use is being made of 
those which exist. It is urged that a number of the present 
playgrounds be enlarged, that the school authorities en- 
deavor to anticipate future needs in providing sites for new 
buildings, that the school playgrounds be equipped with ap- 
paratus by the school board, and that they be kept open under 
paid supervision after school hours, on Saturdays, and dur- 
ing vacations. 

3. It is recommended that education through play be 
more systematically fostered by the department of physical 
education, and that a sufficient number of well-paid assist- 
ants be provided for this purpose. 

4. The time for physical education in the high schools 
is too much monopolized by the system of compulsory mili- 
tary training. It is recommended that the military training 
either be made elective, and placed under the direction of 
the department of physical education, or that it be eliminated 
altogether. The latter is perhaps preferable. As conducted 
at present the military training involves serious danger to 
the health of many pupils compelled to take it. 

5. The hygiene teaching is on the whole good, though 
in certain schools hardly enough time is devoted to the sul> 



Hygiene Teaching 311 

ject. In certain schools commendable devices are employed 
for the purpose of making hygiene teaching effective in the 
daily lives of children, and it is recommended that this kind 
of practical hygiene teaching be more generally emphasized. 
6. It is suggested that the effectiveness of hygiene in- 
struction could be increased by the correction of bad hy- 
gienic examples set by the school itself. Improvements in 
this line would include enlargement of playgrounds, the 
elimination of dry sweeping and dry dusting, the installa- 
tion of baths, enlargement and improvement of toilet facil- 
ities, the elimination of roller towels, the use of liquid soap, 
and, where possible, the correction of defects in lighting, 
heating, and ventilation. 



PART IV 

Finances 



CHAPTER XIII 
THE FINANCIAL PROBLEM ^ 



I 



CITY COSTS FOR MAINTENANCE 

N the study of costs for city maintenance in Salt Lake 
City, with special reference to schools, the city will be 

TABLE XLIX 

Rank of Salt Lake City among Sixteen Western Cities in Items of 
Expenditure for City Maintenance 





Per Capita Cost for 


Rank of 


Items 


Salt 
Lake 
City 


16 Western Cities 


Salt Lake 
City in 




Average 


Median 


Amount 
Spent 


1. General expenses of the city gov- 
ernment 


$1.44 

1. 14 

.90 

1-43 

1.42 

.14 

6.71 

.16 

.42 
.12 


$1.84 
1.74 
1.76 
1.49 
2.09 

•30 
6.27 

•34 
•59 
.92 


$1-52 

1-47 
1.61 

1-45 

2.10 

.11 

5-73 

-35 
•51 
-23 


loth ' 


2. Police department 

3. Fire department 

4. Health and sanitation 

5. Care of streets 

6. Charities, hospital, and corrections 

7. Schools 

8. Libraries, art galleries, and 

museums 


15th 

1 6th 

9th 

i6th 

8th 

5th 

i6th 


g. Parks and playgrounds 

10. Miscellaneous expenses 


loth 
13th 


Total per capita cost 

II. Interest on pubhc debt 


$13.88 
3-29 


$17-34 
3.06 


$15-08 
2.70 


1 2th 
7th 


Total per capita rate 


$17.17 


$20.40 


$17-78 


13th 



compared chiefly with other western cities, and for the 
reason that only where the costs for service and materials 
are comparable are total costs comparable. 

* Chapter XIII was written by Professor Ellwood P. Cubberley, the Director 
of the Survey. — Publishers. 

315 



3i6 School Organization and Administration 

Comparing all general city costs in Salt Lake City with 
the fifteen other western ci^ties first used in Table III, page 
lo, and used continuously throughout this report, we get 
Table XLIX, calculated from the United States Census 
Bureau's last published volume on Statistics of Cities. 




Fig. 45- How Salt Lake City Spends its Dollar 

From this table we sec that the costs for all items of city 
maintenance in Salt Lake City are low. In other words, it 
is a very economically administered city. The figure given 
above shows the distribution of city expenses for annual 
maintenance, reduced so as to show where each dollar of 
taxes raised goes. Only in the expenditures for schools and 



The Financial Problem 



317 



for interest on the bonded debt do the costs for any items 
in the list reach the average for other western cities. In 
three items Salt Lake City's costs are the lowest of the list, 
while in totals the city is thirteenth among the sixteen cities. 
The larger per capita expense for schools is only what 
would be expected in view of the larger number of children 
in the population, as was shown in Table III. 

An examination of the per capita costs for schools in the 
twenty-six cities used in previous tables in this report, as 

TABLE L 

Showing Per Capita Costs for City Maintenance, Including Interest 
Charges, and Per Capita and Percentage Amount for Schools ^ 

I. Western Cities ^ 



City 



San Francisco, Cal 

Portland, Ore 

Tacoma, Wash 

Seattle, Wash 

Spokane, Wash 

Butte, Mont 

Denver, Colo 

Sacramento, Cal 

Oakland, Cal 

San Diego, Cal 

San Jose, Cal 

SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH 

Berkeley, Cal 

Colorado Springs, Colo. . . . 

Los Angeles, Cal 

Pasadena, Cal 



Total 
Mainte- 
nance Cost 
Per Capita 



^36.09 
17.71 
19.99 
22.15 
18.87 
18.25 
21.00 
17.49 
17.77 
22.44 
14.91 
17.17 
14.74 
19.63 
26.17 
23-38 



Cost Per 

Capita for 

Schools 



$4-27 
4-73 
4-95 
5.06 

5-41 
5-71 
5-72 
5-72 
5-74 
6.01 
6.26 
6.71 
7.60 
7.64 
8.66 

lO.II 



Per Cent. 

of Total 

for Schools 



"•9% 

26.7 

24.7 

24.8 

29.7 

31.6 

28.6 

32.7 

32.S 

26.8 

42.0 

39.1 

51-3 

38.9 

31-9 

43-3 



Average for the group 
Median for the group 



$20.48 
19.27 



$6.27 
5-73 



32.3% 
31.8 



' Statistics here, as elsewhere, are from the United States Census Bureau's last-issued annual 
volume on Statistics of Cities, and compare all cities for the year 1912-13. 

2 Ogden is omitted from this group for the reason that the United States Census Bureau does 
not publish financial statistics for cities which in igio had less than 30,000 inhabitants. Ogden's 
population in igio was 25,580. 



3i8 School Organization and Administration 



II. 



TABLE L, continued 
Cities of the Class of Salt Lake City 



City 



3- 
4. 
S- 
6. 

7- 
8. 

9- 
10. 
II. 
12. 

13- 
14. 

IS- 
16. 

17- 
18. 
19. 
20. 
21. 
22. 

23- 
24. 

25. 
26. 



Reading, Pa 

Bridgeport, Conn 

Lowell, Mass 

LjTin, Mass 

Lawrence, Mass 

Dayton, Ohio 

Fall River, Mass 

Albany, N.Y 

Kansas City, Kan 

Troy, N.Y 

Youngstown, Ohio 

New Bedford, Mass 

Trenton, N.J 

Camden, N.J • • • 

Tacoma, Wash 

Omaha, Neb 

Somerville, Mass 

Cambridge, Mass 

Grand Rapids, Mich 

Duluth, Minn 

Spokane, Wash 

Yonkers, N.Y 

Hartford, Conn 

SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH 

Springfield, Mass 

Des Moines, Iowa 

Average for the group . . 
Median for the group . . 



Total 
Mainte- 
nance Cost 
Per Capita 



$9-33 
13.24 
14.72 
15-63 
14.40 
14.46 

14-99 
17.10 
13.10 
18.40 
11.86 

18.57 
14.88 

13-83 
19.99 
20.82 

17-83 
22.30 

13-81 
17.22 
18.87 
22.69 
20.94 
17.17 

22.55 
16.86 



Cost Per 

Capita for 

Schools 



3-29 
3-99 
4.02 
4.07 

4-15 
4.16 
4.17 
4.22 
4.24 

4-37 
4.41 

4.85 
4.90 

4-95 
4-99 
5-04 
5-14 
5-21 
5-24 
5-41 
6.22 
6.26 
6.71 
7.07 
7.26 



Per Cent, 
of Total 
for Schools 



33-6 
24.8 
27.1 
25-8 
28.2 
28.7 
27.8 
24.4 
32.2 
23.1 
36.8 
23.8 
32.6 

35-5 
24.8 
24.0 
18.4 

235 
37-8 
30.2 
29.7 

27-4 
30.0 
39.1 
31-3 
33(> 



M6.7S 
16.98 



i.So 



29.0 
28.5 



well as in the sixteen western cities with which comparison 
has also been made from time to time, gives lis the next 
table. This shows the total city maintenance costs, the costs 
per capita for schools, and the percentage of the total city 
expenses for annual maintenance that go to the support of 
public education, for each of the two groups of cities. 



The Financial Problem 319 

Compared with the first half of the eastern cities given 
in Table L, Salt Lake City appears high, both in the per 
capita cost for schools and in the percentage of city 
funds given to education, but with the second half of 
the eastern cities, and with the western cities, Salt Lake 
City occupies more nearly an average position. 

WHY THESE FIGURES ARE MISLEADING 

These figures, though, are somewhat misleading, not- 
withstanding they are the ones commonly used in compar- 
ing costs. In the first place, most eastern cities pay a much 
lower salary schedule to women teachers than is the case 
in the west, and as approximately 65 per cent, of all ex- 
penses are for teachers' salaries it will be seen that few 
eastern cities can with fairness be compared with western 
cities in the matter of per capita school expenditures. An 
eastern city spending $4.00 per capita for schools, and pay- 
ing its elementary school teachers $40.00 a month, is exactly 
the same as a middle western city paying its teachers $60.00 
a month and spending $5.30 per capiita, and the same as a 
western city paying its teachers $80.00 a month and spend- 
ing $6.60 per capita, assuming that each devotes 65 per 
cent, of its maintenance costs to teachers' salaries. For this 
reason any comparison of eastern with western cities is 
likely to be very misleading. Accordingly, we shall from 
this point on compare Salt Lake City only with other west- 
ern cities, where salaries and other school costs are more 
comparable. 

The figures given in the last table, both for eastern and 
western cities, are also misleading for the reason -that they 
fail entirely to take account of the percentage of school 
children in the total population. A community such as Salt 
Lake City, as was pointed out in Chapter I, must spend 
more money because of the much larger number of children 
it contains. A per capita expense of $6.71 for schools, and 
39.1 per cent, of the total city maintenance costs for educa- 



320 School Organization and Administration 

tion, may at first glance look large, but, as will be shown 
farther on, it really is not so. The large number of school 
children in the city necessitates a high per capita cost for 
schools, without the cost per child educated being high at 
all, while the large percentage of city funds devoted to 
schools is fictitious for the reason that all city costs for other 
items are low. If Salt Lake City's expenditures for other 
items of city expense were at as high a rate as is the case 
in many western cities, the percentage devoted to education 
would be reduced ^to somewhere near 25 to 30 per cent. 
This would be low, considering the large number of children 
of school age in the population. 

A REAL BASIS FOR COMPARING SCHOOL COSTS 

To get a real basis for comparing school costs we must 
take into consideration the number of children to be edu- 
cated, and reduce all per capita costs for schools to what 
it costs per capita for each i per cent, of the school popula- 
tion. For example, if a city spends $6.00 per capita for 
schools, and 12 per cent, of its population consists of chil- 
dren between 5 and 15 years of age,^ it can be seen that it 
spends 50 cents for each one per cent, of its school popula- 
tion. If another city also spends $6.00 per capita and has 
15 per cent, of children, this second city spends but 40 cents 
for each i per cent, of its school population. Similarly, a 
third city having 20 per cent, of children spends but 30 
cents per capita. Though each city is given, in statistical 
tables, as spending the same amount per capita of its popu- 
lation for schools, in reality the three cities are spending en- 
tirely different amounts. Any real comparison of per capita 
costs requires that we first reduce our cities to common 
terms, and see what each is spending for each i per cent. 

^ These two age limits are used in this report because for them we have accu- 
rate percentages for all states and cities of the United States, collected by the 
United States Census Bureau. They correspond to the ages from the kinder- 
garten to the completion of the ninth grade, if the pupil advances normally. 



The Financial Problem 



321 



of its school population. Using the age groups 5 to 15, and 
reducing all to a i per cent, basis, we get Table LI. 

The last column of this table gives a real basis for com- 
paring school costs in different cities, — that is, what each 



TABLE LI 

Cost Per Capita for Schools, Based on Each One Per Cent, of Chil- 
dren (from 5 to 15) in the Total Population 



City 



Cost Per 
Capita 

Total Pop- 
ulation 

for Schools 



Per Cent, 
of Popu- 
lation 5 

to 13 
Years of 

Age 



Cost for 
Schools 

for Each 
i%of 

Children 

in the 

Population 



1. Tacoma, Wash 

2. SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH 

3. San Francisco, Cal 

4. Spokane, Wash 

5. Butte, Mont 

6. Denver, Colo 

7. Portland, Ore 

8. Seattle, Wash 

9. San Diego, Cal 

10. Sacramento, Cal 

11. Oakland, Cal 

12. San Jose, Cal 

13. Colorado Springs, Colo. . . . 

14. Berkeley, Cal 

15. Los Angeles, Cal 

16. Pasadena, Cal 

Average for the group . . 
Median for the group . . 



*4-9S 
6.71 
4.27 
541 
5-71 
5-72 
4-73 
5.06 
6.01 
5-72 
5-74 
6.26 
7.64 
7.60 
8.66 

lO.II 



15-2 

18.5 
11.9 
14-5 
iS-i 
15.2 
12.0 

12-5 

134 

12. 1 
I4.I 

13-8 
16.0 
14.7 
13.0 
13.6 



city is spending per capita for each one per cent, of its 
school children. As parochial and private schools have 
never flourished in western cities, with the possible excep- 
tion of San Francisco, the comparison of costs is all the 



322 School Organization and Administration 

more accurate. Similar comparisons for the twenty-five 
cities of the first part of Table L show a range of from 30 
cents to 45 cents for eastern cities, but the low salaries paid 
women teachers there, and the large hold of both private 
and parochial schools, make the comparisons less accurate 
than for western cities. Hartford, Conn., however, shows 
a per capita expense of 40 cents for each i per cent, of its 
children between 5 and 15 years of age; Des Moines, Iowa, 
44 cents; and Springfield, Mass., 45 cents. 



THE MEDIAN WESTERN COST 

It will be seen from the last column of Table LI that the 
average cost for the sixteen western cities is 45 cents, as 
against Salt Lake City's 36 cents, and that the median 
western cost is 43 cents. The cities which are caring 
properly for their children are those which are spending 
more than these amounts. Averages and medians show 
only a halfway point between good conditions and poor con- 
ditions, and almost never represent a desirable stopping 
place. Still, to see the position of the different cities in 
the matter of caring for their children, and to set up a ten- 
tative standard for school maintenance, let us take the 
median of 43 cents as a standard below which a city ought 
not to go, and apply it to each of the cities of the table. 
Multiplying the percentage of children of school age in the 
total population by the meridian cost of 43 cents for each 
I per cent., we get Table LI I. 



WHERE SALT LAKE CITY STANDS 

The second column of figures shows what each city of 
the table should spend per capita of the total population 
for the maintenance of its schools, merely to bring that city 
up to the median point for the sixteen western cities. To 
bring any city up to the average for western cities would 



The Financial Problem 



323 



TABLE LII 
Median and Actual Cost Per Capita for Schools for Western Cities 



City 



Per Cent 
of Popu- 
lation 
from 3 
to IS 
Years of 
Age 



Desira- 
ble Cost 
Per Cap- 
ita at 
$.43 for 
each 1% 
of Chil- 
dren 



Actual 

Cost Per 

Capita 



Excess 
or Defi- 
cit over 
Estimate 



1. San Francisco, Cal 

2. Portland, Ore 

3. Sacramento, Cal 

4. Seattle, Wash 

5. Los Angeles, Cal 

6. San Diego, Cal , 

7. Pasadena, Cal , 

8. San Jose, Cal 

9. Oakland, Cal 

10. Spokane, Wash 

11. Berkeley, Cal 

12. Butte, Mont 

13. Tacoma, Wash 

14. Denver, Colo 

15. Colorado Springs, Colo. . . . 

16. SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH 



11.9 
12.0 
12. 1 
12.5 
13.0 

134 
13.6 
13-8 
14.1 

14-5 
14.7 

IS-2 

15.2 
16.0 
18.5 



$5-12 

S.16 
5.20 
5-38 
5-59 
5-76 
5-84 
5-93 
6.06 
6.24 
6.32 
6.49 
6.54 
6.54 
6.88 
7.96 



$4-27 
4-73 
5-72 
5.06 
8.66 
6.01 

lO.II 

6.26 
S-74 
5-41 
7.60 

5-71 
4-95 
5-72 
7.46 
6.71 



-$ .85 

- -43 
+ .52 

- -32 
+ 3-07 
+ .25 
+ 4-27 



+ 



+ 



+ 



•33 
.32 
.83 
1.28 
.78 

IS9 

.82 

.58 
1.25 



cost slightly more. For Salt Lake City it would raise the 
desirable per capita cost from $7.96 to $8.33. 

On the basis of a cost of $7.96 it is seen that Salt Lake 
City is spending, on the maintenance of its schools, $1.25 
less per capita of the total population than it should, merely 
to put the city in a middle position in the matter of annual 
school maintenance. On a basis of a total population of 
110,000, this would mean that the city should raise and 
expend on maintenance alone $137,500 more than it now 
does, merely to care for its present children as well as is 
done in the median western city. To rank with the better 



324 School Organization and Administration 

western cities in the matter of public education would mean 
an additional expenditure for maintenance of approximately 
$200,cx)o a year. 

These figures tally well with the statement made in Chap- 
ter IV, after considering the increasing number of pupils 



TABLE LIII 
Maintenance Cost Per Pupil in Average Daily Attendance 



City 



1. Tacoma, Wash 

2. SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH 

3. San Francisco, Cal 

4. Denver, Colo 

5. San Jose, Cal 

6. Portland, Ore 

7. Oakland, Cal 

8. Colorado Springs, Colo. . . . 

9. Spokane, Wash 

10. San Diego, Cal 

11. Seattle, Wash 

12. Berkeley, Cal 

13. Butte, Mont 

14. Sacramento, Cal 

15. Los Angeles, Cal 

16. Pasadena, Cal 

Average for the group . . . 
Median for the group . . . 



Cost Per Pupil 

in Average Daily 

Attendance 



$43-92 
44.81 
44.86 
48.07 
44.86 
49-95 
52-33 
52.65 
54-94 
59-90 
60.50 
62.20 
63-45 
64-75 
68.03 
86.87 



$55-23 
52.65 



per teacher, that the city needs now about one hundred addi- 
tional teachers merely to care properly for its present num- 
ber of children. Table LTII above, which shows the 
amount expended by the different western cities for each 
child in average daily attendance at school, here based on 
figures collected and ptiblished by the United States Com- 
missioner of Education, also confirms the above estimate as 



The Financial Problem 325 

to the need for large additional funds to maintain properly 
the present schools. 

From this table it will be seen that Salt Lake City is next 
to the lowest for all western cities in the amount spent per 
pupil, and much below both the median and the average 
for the group. The difference of $7.84 below the median, 
for the 18,367 pupils in the schools during 1914-15, would 
require an increase of $143,997 nierely to bring the city's 
expenditures up to the middle point of expenses for western 
cities. To bring the city up to the average western city in 
expenditures would require $191,384 increase. 

WEALTH AND TAX RATES 

There still remains to be considered the real wealth of 
the city, and the tax rate required to produce the median 
rate of 43 cents for each i per cent, of the school popula- 
tion in Salt Lake City, and in other western cities. Taking 
now the actual wealth of each western city, as shown in 
Table VI, Chapter I, and the desirable per capita support 
for schools at the western median figure of 43 cents for 
each I per cent, of the school population, we get, by divi- 
sions, Table LIV. This shows the actual wealth in each 
city upon which each dollar of the tax for schools must 
be raised, and the rate of tax per $100 of actual wealth 
necessary to raise this median sum. 

It is here that the large per capita wealth of Salt Lake 
City tells. Were the city as poor as Butte, it would require 
a tax of over one dollar; had the city as few children as 
Portland, the tax would be reduced to a trifle over 30 cents. 
It is very evident that Salt Lake City can afford large 
families. 

Figure 46 shows clearly how the tax rate for schools must 
increase proportionally to the number of children of school 
age in the population. The figures and lines of this chart 
give the rate of tax for school support which would be re- 
quired, in Salt Lake City, to provide merely the median 



326 School Organization and Administration 



TABLE LIV 

Tax Rates, Based on Actual Wealth, Necessary to Produce Estimated 
Per Capita Support for Schools 



City 



1. Butte, Mont 

2. Denver, Colo 

3. Colorado Springs, Colo. . . . 

4. San Jose, Cal 

5. Tacoma, Wash 

6. SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH 

7. Berkeley, Cal 

8. Oakland, Cal 

9. Spokane, Wash 

10. Seattle, Wash 

11. Pasadena, Cal 

12. Los Angeles, Cal 

13. Sacramento, Cal 

14. Portland, Ore 

15. San Diego, Cal 

16. San Francisco, Cal 



Actual 

Wealth 

Per Capita 



1126.50 
1202.31 
1081.02 
1237.22 
1683.52 

1371-13 
1477.92 
1666.12 
1602.77 
1791.41 
1930.87 
1796.60 
1924.44 
2596.00 
2561.82 



Desira- 
ble Per 
Capita 
Support 

for 

Schools 

at $.43 

for Each 

1% 

School 

Popula 

tion 



$6.49 

6.54 
6.88 

S-93 
6.54 
7.96 
6.32 
6.06 
6.24 
S.38 
5-84 
5-59 
5.20 
5.16 
5-76 

5-12 



Actual 
Wealth 
for Each 
Dollar of 
Estimated 
Per Capita 
Support 



$122.62 
172.25 

174-75 
182.30 
189.17 
2n.50 
216.95 

243.88 

267.01 
297.90 

306.75 

345-41 
345-50 
372.95 
450.69 
500.35 



Rate of 
Tax on 
Each 
$100 of 
Actual 
Wealth 
Neces- 
sary to 
Produce 
Estimate 



814 

58 

572 

546 

527 

473 

461 

41 

375 

335 

326 

289 

289 

269 

222 

20 



Average for the group 
Median for the group 



51630.85 
1634-45 



K6.06 
6.00 



5281.25 

255-44 



405 
397 



rate of 43 cents for each i per cent, of school population, 
if the city had the same percentage of children in its popula- 
tion as have the different cities given on the figure. That is, 
if Salt Lake City had as few children as Portland, which is 



The Financial Problem 



327 



in many respects a comparable city, the tax required would 
be but $.307 on the $100, instead of $.473; if it had as 
many children as Fall River, the tax required would be 

$.522. 



— yax rati:, in cents. 

10 2,0 30 40 



50 



60 



I. SAN FRANCISCO 
Z. PORTLAND 

3. SACRAMENTO 

4. SEATTLE 

J LOS ANGELES 
6. SAN DIEGO 
7 PASADENA 
?■. SAN JOSE 
9. OAKLAND 
10 SPOKANE 

II. BERKELEY 
12. BUTTE 
ig.TACOMA 

14. DENVER 

15. COLORADO SPR, 
laAYFORALLClTlES 
IT.SALTLftKECITY 
Ig.YONKERS.N.Y 
19.SCRAHT0N.PA. 
^O.FALLRlVER.MftSS. 




fWsl 



i3l6l 



V3%9m 



74^ 



^,445^^ Z^'ZPZ^ y/////y ////77. ^7A 



kM^y^ w^<9^ wo6^ j;^w^^w: (W^ 



JAiZt 



Fig. 46. Tax Rate in Cents on Each $100 of Real Wealth which would 
BE Required for Proper Maintenance in Salt Lake City, if the 
Percentage of Children were the Same as in the Other Cities of 
THE Table 



NEED FOR A LARGER SCHOOL TAX 

A tax rate for schools of $473 per $100 of real valuation 
is equivalent to a tax rate of $1.3514 on the present assessed 



328 School Organization and Administration 

valuation of 35 per cent. This is the same as 13.5 mills, as 
taxes are usually calculated in Utah. As the money received 
from state and county sources is worth somewhere near 
3.5 mills, the total local tax desirable for proi>er maintenance 
is about 10 mills. Under the new state law requiring prop- 
erty to be assessed at its full value, beginning with 19 16, the 
maintenance rate should not be less than 4 mills. The legis- 
lature, however, in ordering assessments advanced to full 
value, has at the same time cut the rate of tax allowed pro- 
portionally. This leaves the schools with two mills in place 
of their present six. That the assessor will treble the 
assessed valuation of the property in Salt Lake City may be 
seriously doubted. If valuations are actually increased 
two and one-half times, the result will be as satisfactory as 
has usually taken place elsewhere. 

With a tax rate for maintenance already wholly inade- 
quate, and the new rate reduced in proportion to the ex- 
pected increase in valuations, just what the schools of Salt 
Lake City are to do in the immediate future is rather hard 
to see. It looks as though even more serious cramping and 
crowding of the schools, and the employment of more cheap 
and inexperienced teachers, with little or no new develop- 
ment, would be the inevitable result. At the present time 
the schools of Salt Lake City can hardly claim a high place 
in any single phase of recent public-school development, and 
largely because the city school authorities have had so little 
money with which to develop the system. It has taken all 
of the money to maintain the traditional type of school and 
teach the so-called fundamental school subjects. Where the 
schools will be in a decade more of the present policy of 
pinching to make both ends meet is not hard to guess. The 
drawing on the opposite page shows that for years the 
schools have not kept up their expense for maintenance pro- 
portionally with the increase in pupils, and that a material 
part of the recent increase in expenses has been due to rap- 
idly increasing charges for bond interest and expenditures 
for buildings and sites. The expenditures for annual main- 



The Financial Problem 



329 



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H-£l 

€»-Zl 

Zl-tl 

U-Ol 

01-60 

60-GO 

80-ZO 

ZO-90 

90-SO 

SO-bO 

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€0-Z0 

ZO-IO 

10-0061 

0061-66 

66-86 

96-Z6 

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96-S6 

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330 School Organization and Administration 

tenance, represented by the space in white, has hardly 
widened in proportion to the increase in membership in the 
schools. Under the present tax limit necessary educational 
increases are difficult, while the desirable new features and 
additions recommended in this report are not financially 
possible. 

THE REMEDY A LEGISLATIVE ONE 

The trouble, however, does not lie with the people of Salt 
Lake City. They are willing enough to educate their chil- 
dren properly. Recent editorials in the leading newspapers 
regarding the schools and their support would lead one to 
feel that they, the people, are willing to go even further 
and support the schools even generously. It is the people 
of Utah, as represented in the state legislature, who stand 
in the way. This is done by imposing a maintenance tax- 
limit so small as to make really good schools for the future 
entirely out of the cjuestion. This is neither justice nor 
sound public policy. Public education is the great means 
for improving government and advancing intelligence. If 
any community desires to provide better schools for its 
children, and is willing and able to do so by local taxation, 
it is exceedingly short-sighted for the state to stand in its 
way and prevent its doing so. 

That the people of Salt Lake City are able to pay a much 
larger local school tax for maintenance has been shown. 
That they must provide from 25 per cent, to 50 per cent, 
more schools and teachers than the average western city 
has also been shown. That the people are willing to pay 
more is confidently believed. Such being the case, the legis- 
lature ought to enlarge materially the local tax permitted 
to be levied. Under the new assessment law a tax of at 
least 4 mills, clearly for maintenance, should be provided, 
and if interest and sinking funds are to continue to be paid 
from this, the rate should be 5 mills. In but few cities are 
bond interest and sinking funds required to be paid from 



The Financial Problem 331 

the annual maintenance rates. It would be better to shift 
these items to the building tax, leaving the maintenance 
fund clear for school support. 

With the many pressing building needs, both for new 
buildings to keep up with the growth of the city and for the 
alteration and gradual replacement of rooms not now fit 
for use as schoolrooms, as is pointed out at some length in 
Chapter X, an annual building tax of 2^ or 3 mills, under 
the new assessment basis, is not too high. Salt Lake City 
needs many new schoolrooms, and so far as possible these 
ought to be paid for as built. In a city as wealthy as this 
one the annual interest charge on bonds ought not to be 
increased wdiere it can be avoided. The city's interest bill 
is relatively high now. 

There can of course be no relief from present conditions 
until the legislature gives the city larger freedom to spend 
what it has in its own pockets, and is willing to spend if 
permitted to do so. The enactment of a new governing 
school law, embodying the main lines of the law suggested 
in the Appendix to this report, would solve the difficulty 
entirely and enable the city's educational system to advance 
to the place it ought by right to occupy. 

DISTRIBUTION OF EXPENDITURE 

But one question of a financial nature still remains to 
be considered, and that is whether the present expenditures 
are properly proportioned. Tabulating for the same six- 
teen western cities previously used, we get Table LV. 

This table answers the question. Excepting for textbooks 
and supplies, Salt Lake City's distribution of expenditures 
follows closely the average for the sixteen cities, and is 
also close to the median. The higher percentage for text- 
books and supplies comes from the free textbooks supplied 
by the city. In all California cities these are supplied by 
the state, while in Washington, Oregon, and Montana the 
pupils furnish their own books. 



332 School Organization and Administration 



TABLE LV 

Distribution of School Expenditures in Salt Lake City, Compared with 
Sixteen Other Western Cities 





Percentage of Total Spent for Each 


Items 


In Salt 


Average 










Lake 


City 


Median 


Highest 


Lowest 




City 










I. For administration . . . 


3-0 


3-3 


3-0 


4.6 


1.8 


2. For supervision .... 


9.9 


9.1 


9-7 


1 5 -3 


34 


3. For teachers' salaries . . 


64.1 


67.2 


64.8 


71.6 


60.0 


4. For janitors and labor . . 


5-5 


5-9 


5-5 


lo.S 


4.2 


5. For textbooks and school 












supplies 


7-9 


54 


4.8 


11.9 


1.6 


6. For fuel, water, power, and 












other supplies .... 


34 


3-7 


3-5 


8.0 


1.2 


7. For maintenance and re- 












pair of plant .... 


5-8 


6.0 


5-7 


12. 1 


3-1 


8. For health conservation . 


0.2 


0.4 


0.2 


1.2 


.0 


g. For miscellaneous . . . 


0.2 


o-S 


1.9 


2.7 


.0 



DISTRIBUTION OF EXPENDITURES FOR THE NEXT TWO 

YEARS 

For the next two years, until some adequate legislative 
relief can be obtained, it is important that the board of edu- 
cation devote as large a proportion of its funds as possible 
to the first three items of the table. All repairs which the 
educational department does not certify as absokttely neces- 
sary should wait, and all expenses not necessary for instruc- 
tion should be curtailed. Even then there may not be suffi- 
cient funds to maintain the schools during 19 16-17 for 
longer than nine and a half months, or possibly nine. The 
people of Salt Lake City as a body scarcely realize how in- 
adequately their schools are supported, or what a handicap 
they labor under by reason of the restrictions laid upon 
them by the laws of the state. 



Appendix 



APPENDIX 

A SUGGESTED LAW FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF THE SALT 
LAKE CITY SCHOOL DISTRICT 

THE following is a suggestion for a new law for the Salt Lake City school 
district, based on the needs presented in this report. For the reasons 
for the different recommendations, made in the following suggested law, the 
reader is referred back to the different chapters of the report itself. 

AN ACT, PROVIDING FOR THE ORGANIZATION OF SCHOOLS IN CITIES OF THE 
FIRST CLASS 

Be it enacted by the Legislature of the State of Utah: 

Section i. Sections amended. That Sections 1892 to 1961, inclusive, Com- 
piled Laws of Utah, in so far as such relate to the government of schools in 
cities of the first class, unless otherwise herein provided, are amended to read 
as follows: 

Section 2. Schools in cilies of the first class. Each city of the first class, and 
all territory which shall hereafter be added thereto, shall constitute one school 
district, and shall be under the control of a board of education to be elected as 
herein provided, separate and apart from the counties in which the cities are 
located. All public schools and property shall be imder the direction and con- 
trol of the board of education for such city, and the schools therein shall be free 
to all children of the city between the ages of five and twenty-one, and to such 
other persons as the board of education may decide to admit. 

Section 3. The board of education; how constituted. The board of education 
in each city of the first class shall consist of five members, to be elected from the 
city at large, one each year on the first Wednesday in December, and for a five- 
year term; provided, however, that of boards of education in cities of the first 
class in existence when this act takes effect, the five members who have the 
longest remaining time to serve shall constitute the new boards of education, 
and the five who have the shortest time to serve shall pass out of office the 
day this act takes effect; and provided further, that the five members who re- 
main shall forthwith proceed by lot to so provide for the termination of their 
terms of office that the term of one member shall expire at the close of the year 
in which this act takes effect, and one other at the close of each year thereafter 
for the following four years. All elections thereafter shall be for five-year terms, 

335 



336 Appendix 

except in the case of vacancies caused by the death, resignation, or removal of 
a member from office, in which case elections shall be for the unexpired term. 
The board of education shall fill, by appointment until the next annual school 
election, any vacancies occurring in its own membership. All members elected 
shall qualify previous to, and take their seats at the first regular meeting in 
January next after their election, and shall serve until their successors are duly 
elected and qualified. Each member shall be and remain a quahfied registered 
voter of the city, and shall receive no compensation for his services. 

Section 4. Conduct of elections. Elections for members of the board of 
education shall be called and conducted, and the canvass of returns shall be 
made, and the qualification of electors shall be as provided in the general regis- 
tration and election laws, except as herein provided. There must be at least 
one polling place in each mimicipal ward, which may be at a schoolhouse or 
schoolhouses to be designated by the board of education. It shall not be neces- 
sary to file certificates of nomination of candidates, nor to publish a Hst of 
nominations. Appointments of judges of election shall be made by the board 
of education, at any convenient time prior to the day of election. Any form of 
ballot which is simple and plain and which conveys the intention of the voter 
may be used. In case a member is to be elected to fill out an unexpired term, 
as well as one for the full term, the ballots shall specify the term which each 
person voted for is to serve. The ballot shall be folded, and no designating mark 
or device of any kind shall appear on the outside thereof, and shall be deposited 
in the ballot box by the presiding judge of election, in the presence of the voter, 
on the name of the proposed voter being found on the registry list, and on all 
challenges to such vote being decided in favor of such voter. Boards of educa- 
tion shall exercise all such powers relative to school elections in their respective 
cities as are conferred upon the boards of county commissioners in other elec- 
tions, so far as conformable with this title. 

Section 5. Organization of hoard; executive officers. The members elected as 
herein provided, before entering upon the discharge of their duties, shall take 
and subscribe the oath of office. At the first regular meeting in January of 
each year each board shall reorganize by electing one of their number as presi- 
dent, and one other member as vice-president. 

Each board shall also appoint a superintendent of schools, a clerk and pur- 
chasing agent, a superintendent of buildings, a superintendent of attendance 
and census, a superintendent of health work, and a treasurer, and may appoint 
such other officers as the needs of the schools shall require; provided, however, 
that all such officers now employed shall continue to ser\'e for the terms for 
which they were originally appointed, and thereafter such officers shall be ap- 
pointed for two-year terms, unless otherwise provided in this act. Anj' oflicer 
aj)i)ointed by the board may, however, be removed at anytime, for cause, by a 
four-fifths vote of the board. Their salaries shall be as fixed by the board, but 
a salary once fixed cannot be reduced during the term of oflice of any oflicer. 

It shall be the duty of the president, or in case of his absence the vice-presi- 
dent, to preside at all meetings of the board, to appoint any necessary special 



Appendix 337 

committees, and to sign all warrants ordered by the board of education to be 
drawn upon the treasurer for school moneys. It shall be the chief function of 
the board of education to hear reports, settle matters of school policy, decide 
upon extensions and improvements, appropriate funds, and adopt rules and 
regulations for the government of its executive officers; it shall be the chief 
function of the executive officers appointed by the board of education to exe- 
cute the policies decided upon and to work in accordance with the rules and reg- 
ulations adopted for their government by the board. 

Section 6. The superintendent of schools. The board of education shall 
appoint a superintendent of schools, for a four-year term, who shall be an edu- 
cator of rank and experience, and who shall be the chief executive officer of the 
board of education. He shall have supervisory and coordinating oversight of 
the work of all other department officers, shall be notified of and be expected to 
attend all regular and special meetings of the board of education, or any special 
committees of the same which may have been created, — except when his 
position, services, or salary is under consideration, — and shall have the right 
to speak on any question imder consideration, but no right to vote. He shall 
have the exclusive right to nominate for election the superintendent of build- 
ings, the superintendent of attendance and census, the superintendent of health 
work, and all assistant superintendents, special supervisors, principals, and 
regular and special teachers, and shall assign to them their duties. He shall 
also have exclusive control of the outlining and directing of the instruction in 
the schools. For incompetencj', immorality, or insubordination, he may remove 
any teacher, principal, or super\'isor from oflice, and shall report his action to the 
board. 

Section 7. The clerk and purchasing agent. The clerk and purchasing agent 
shall be appointed for two-year terms, and before entering on the duties of his 
office he shall give a bond running to the board of education, in such sum as the 
board may require, conditioned on the faithful performance of the duties of his 
office. It shall be his duty to attend all meetings of the board and its commit- 
tees, and to act as the secretary; to keep an accurate journal of its proceedings, 
and have the care and custody of the seal, records, and papers not otherwise pro- 
vided for; to countersign all warrants drawn upon the treasurer by order of the 
board; to keep an accurate account of all moneys paid to the treasurer on ac- 
count of said board, and from what source received, and all moneys paid on 
orders drawm on the treasurer by order of said board ; and to prepare and submit 
to the board an annual statement, under oath, of the receipts and disburse- 
ments during the year ending June thirtieth, showing: 

1. The amount on hand at the elate of the last report; 

2. The amount of sinking fund and how invested; 

3. The moneys paid out, and for what paid; 

4. The balance of school moneys on hand; 

5. The number, date, and amount of every bond issued and redeemed under 
the authority herein given, and the amount received and paid therefor. 



338 Appendix 

The clerk shall also act as purchasing agent for the board, unless the board 
should decide to divide the duties and appoint a purchasing agent, and he shall 
buy, under direction of the board, the superintendent of schools, or the execu- 
tive officers concerned, all materials and supplies needed by the school depart- 
ment. 

Section 8. The treasurer. The treasurer shall give a satisfactory bond run- 
ning to the board of education, in such amount as the board may require, con- 
ditional on the faithful performance of the duties of his office. He shall be the 
custodian of all moneys belonging to the corporation, and responsible upon 
his bond for all moneys received by him as treasurer. He shall prepare and sub- 
mit in writing a monthly report of the receipts and disbursements of his office, 
and pay out school moneys only upon a warrant signed by the president, or in 
his absence or disability, by the vice-president, coimtersigned by the clerk, and 
shall perform such other duties as the board may require. 

Section g. The superintendent of buildings. The superintendent of build- 
ings shall be a person who has been trained as an engineer, and shall have charge 
of the maintenance and repair of the school plant, under the direction of the 
superintendent of schools. All repairs and alterations must first be approved 
by the superintendent of schools. The superintendent of buildings shall employ 
all janitors, mechanics, and laborers as needed, shall direct them as to their 
duties, and may dismiss them for cause. 

Section 10. The superintendent of attendance and census. The superintendent 
of attendance and census shall have charge of the enforcement of all laws re- 
lating to the attendance of children at school, the granting of working permits 
to children from whom such permits are required, and the taking and mainte- 
nance of detailed and accurate records as to the age, nationahty, whereabouts, 
physical condition, and attendance or non-attendance at school of every child 
between the ages of five and sixteen in the city, and shall supply such informa- 
tion in duplicate form to the schools of the city. From the card records on file 
the annual school census, required of all districts annually in July, shall be com- 
piled and forwarded to the state superintendent of public instruction. 

In cities of the first class all children within the compulsory school ages, and 
not exempted from attendance by law, shall be expected to attend school every 
day the public schools are in session, and to provide for the proper enforcement 
of this law all private and parochial schools shall make reports as to children 
within the compulsory school ages attending their schools, and the public school 
attendance officers shall in turn enforce the attendance of pupils enrolled in pri- 
vate or parochial schools. 

Section 11. The superintendent of health work. Where the health work is 
efficiently conducted by the board of health, the board of education may per- 
mit it to remain under such jurisdiction, but at any time it may cooperate with 
the board of health in further dc\eloping the work, or take over the work in part 
or in whole. In any case it shall be the duty of the board of education to see that 
an efficient school health service is provided for the schools of the citj', with 



Appendix 339 



nurses, physicians, and such specialists as may be needed properly to carry 
on the work. 

Section 12. Annual report. It shall be the duty of the board of education 
m each city of the first class to see that an annual report, covering the operations 
of the schools, the finances, and the operations of the different departments or 
divisions of the school system, with sufficient statistical matter properly to 
illustrate the progress of the schools, is compiled and printed for distribution 
among the people of the city. The superintendent of schools shall report on the 
educational work, progress, and needs of the schools, and the other executive 
officers shall report through him as to the work of their departments. 

Section 13. Annual budget. Each year the board of education in each city 
of the first class shall cause to be compiled, on or before the first day of May of 
each year, a detailed budget covering the needs of the schools for the school 
year commencing on the first day of July next thereafter, in all of their depart- 
ments. When prepared this budget shall be submitted to the board of educa- 
tion for its approval. The budget shall show the amounts necessary to carry on 
the school system as it is, the amounts needed for necessary additions, and the 
amounts desired for extensions or expansions of the school system. The budget 
shall also be classified so as to show the needs for each department, and the 
amomits needed for maintenance of the schools, maintenance and repair of 
plant, additional sites and buildings or additions to existing sites or buildings, 
bond interest and sinking fund requirements, and such other items as the board 
of education may direct. 

Section 14. Annual school tax. When the budget has been approved by the 
board of education, the amounts estimated to be received from state and county 
school taxes shall first be deducted, and the board of education, through its 
proper officers, shall forthwith cause the remaining amount to be certified to the 
ofiicers charged with the assessment and collection of taxes for general county 
purposes in the county in which the city is situated, and such officers, after hav- 
ing extended the valuation of property on the assessment rolls, shall levy such 
per cent, as shall, as nearly as may be, raise the amount required by the board, 
which levy shall be uniform on all property within the said city as returned on 
the assessment roll; and the said county officers are hereby authorized and re- 
quired to place the same on the tax roll. Said taxes shall be collected by the 
county treasurer as other taxes are collected, but without additional com- 
pensation for assessing and collecting, and he shall pay the same to the treasurer 
of said board, promptly as collected, who shall hold the funds subject to the order 
of the board of education; provided, that the tax for the support and mainte- 
nance of such school system in cities of the first class shall not exceed, for annual 
maintenance, five mills on the dollar in any one year upon the taxable property 
of said city, of which at least sixty per cent, shall not be used otherwise than for 
the payment of teachers and supervisory officers; nor three mills on the dollar 
in any one year for repairs or extensions of the school plant, new sites or build- 
ings, and bond interest and sinking fund or bond redemption requirements. 



340 Appendix 

Section 15. Other powers. Boards of education in cities of the first class 
shall exercise all rights and powers, and be charged with all responsibilities and 
duties now by law given to boards of education in cities of the first and second 
class, except in the matter of the examination and certification of teachers as 
provided for in Sections 1916 to 1926 inclusive of the compiled laws of the State, 
except in so far as such may have been amended by the provisions of this Act, 



Index 



INDEX 



Accelerated pupils, 196-200. 

Administrative control by superin- 
tendent, 44-46. 

Administrative departments, 25. 

Administrative organization. Sec Or- 
ganization. 

Age and grade distribution table, 195. 

Age groups in population, 11. 

Age on entering first grade, 208. 

Annual school report, 339. 

Arithmetic, circular as to teaching, 99; 
fundamental operations tested, 173- 
186; in course of study, 171; rea- 
soning test in, 186-190; teaching in, 
observed, 98; work tested, 1 71-190; 
time given to, 171; type of test in, 
117; widely varying results in, 178. 

Art, and construction, 103; and hand- 
work outlines, 104. 

Attendance, at high school compared, 
66; by years, 63; of pupils, 48, 59. 

Backward children, 209; studied, 213. 
Basement and hall classrooms, 249- 

251- 

Batavia instruction, 220. 

Baths, school, 256. 

Binet-Simon scale, 213. 

Bird study in one school, 95. 

Blackboards, 253. 

Board of Education, board too large, 
34; committees of, and their work, 
25; importance of work of, 24; pres- 
ent organization shown, 27; present 
organization wrong, 26; proper func- 
tions of, 23; recommendations for 
reorganization of, 35 ; suggested elec- 
tion of, 336; suggested new organiza- 
tion of, 335, 336; suggested powers 
for, 335-340; things members should 
not do, ^y, to represent the state, 
220. 

Budget, annual school, 339. 



Buildings and health, 229-268. 

Buildings, school, basement and hall 
classrooms in, 249-251; construc- 
tion and costs, 265; heating of, 242- 
246;^ lighting of, 235-242, 258; 
repairs of, 265; superintendent of, 
338; temperatures found in, 244- 
246; ventilation of, 246-249; waste 
of space in, 233-235. 

Census, school, bureau needed, 60; 
data needed, 60; card system, 61; 
present, 59; value of, in locating 
buildings, 62. 

Children, age and grade distribution 
table, 195; exceptional, 223-224; 
mental classification of, 211; prog- 
ress through schools, 194; retarded, 
196-202. 

Civics, instruction in, 80, 91. 

Classrooms, basement and hall, 249- 

251- 

Class work observed, in. 

Cloakrooms, 253. 

Committees of board, 25, 336. 

Composition, results of tests in, 141- 
150; samples of average work, 146- 
149. See also Language. 

Constructive work and art, 103. 

Cost for schools, 317, 329; maintenance 
cost per pupil, 324; median Western 
cost, 322-323; real basis for com- 
paring, 320. 

Courses of study, the, 71 ff.; how con- 
structed, 74; opinions and tests of, 
71; probably not adapted to needs, 
67; time allotments in, 77, 90; 
what prescribed, 75; work tested, 
130-193. 

Delinquency, the problem of, 225. 
Departments, main administrative, 25. 
Desks, school, 251. 



343 



344 



Index 



Distribution of pupils, accelerated and 
retarded, 200; age and grade dis- 
tribution, 195; of all in fifth grade, 
206. 

Domestic arts and science, log. 

Drawing in lower grades, 105. 

Drinking fountains, 260. 

Educational department, administra- 
tion of, 36; staff of, 38; work of, 36. 

Elementary school, courses of study, 
74; salaries of teachers, 51; Eng- 
lish work in, 81. 

Enrollment, changes in, in twenty 
years, 65; of pupils, 59. 

Entering age of pupils, 208. 

Examination test, type?, of, 116. 

Exceptional children, 223; typical 
cases of, 224. 

Expenditures for schools, by years, 
329; distribution of, 331-332. 

Extensions, desirable school, 119. 

Eyes of children, 284-285. 

Feeble-minded children, 214 fT. ; num- 
ber found in every city, 216; proper 
training of, 219, 221; waste due to, 
215. 

Financial problem, the, 315-332. 

Fire protection, 264. 

Floors, cleaning of, 263. 

Gardening, at Whittier School, 96; 
school and home, 96. 

Geograph)', work in, 100; instruc- 
tion in, observed, 10 1; t^^e of ex- 
amination in, n6. 

Grade supervision, quality of, 118. 

Grammar and language, 85; type of 
examination test in, 116. 

Grammar grades, spirit of, 86. 

Growth of schools, a quarter century 
of, 37, 47; rapid, 36. 

Hall classrooms, 249-251. 

Health conditions among Salt Lake 
City children, 280. 

Health questionnaires used, 282-283. 

Health supervision, 269-293; an ideal 
service, 274; costs for, 270; dis- 
eases found, 278; expansions 
planned, 279; should be extended, 



291; staff, 269, 338; stages in de- 
velopment of, 271-273, 277. 

Health teaching, 307-311. 

Heating of school buildings, 242-246. 

High school, attendance at, compared, 
66; junior, 119-121; senior, 127; 
salaries of teachers in, 53. 

History, attention to local, 92; excel- 
'lent features of course, 93; in the 
elementary schools, 91. 

Hygiene teaching, 307-311. 

Individual differences as shown by 
tests of school work, 137, 144, 154, 
164. 

Initiative, premium placed on, 46. 

Instruction in the schools, as outlined, 
71; as seen, no; classroom work 
observed, in; measured, 130 
{See also Tests); quality of, no. 

Intelligence tests, 211. 

Janitor service, 261-264. 

Junior high school, the, 119; plan as 

yet imperfectly developed, 120; 

t}^es of courses needed, 121. 

Kindergartens, the, 72; more needed, 

73- 
Kindergarten theory, the, 72. 

Language and grammar, 85; exami- 
nation tests, 116; work in the ele- 
mentary schools, 81. See also Com- 
position. 

Law, suggested new, for the Salt Lake 
City school district, 335-340. 

Lighting of buildings, 235-242, 258. 

Malnutrition, 290. 

Manners and morals. So. 

Manual training, courses of study in, 
poor, 106; suggestions for improve- 
ment of, 108; the work in, 106; 
work needs enlarging, 107. 

Mental classification of pupils, 211. 

Mentally exceptional children, 289. 

Military drill in the high school, 301- 

303- 
Modeling, 105. 
Music, 102. 



Index 



345 



Nature study, work in, 93; .diversity 

in different schools, 94. 
Nose and throat troubles, 284. 
Nurse, the school, diseases found by, 

278; effectiveness of work done, 278; 

work of, 277. 

Open-air schools, 255. 

Organization of the school department, 
desirable reorganization of, 30-31, 
34; existing form of, 26-27; right 
principles in organization of, 29; 
suggested reorganization bj^ a new 
law, 335-340. 

Penmanship. See Writing. 

Phonics, 85. 

Photometer used, 241. 

Physical education, 294-306; average 
and fair example of, 296-298; play 
teachers needed, 300; type found 
in city, 295, 301. 

Physical training, 109. 

Playgrounds, activities in, 304-306; 
small, 231, 304; vacation, 306. 

Population of city, character of, 7; 
children in, 10, 1 2 ; rate of growth, 66. 

Population of selected cities, 9. 

Principals of schools, 43; work of, 112. 

Promotions, of pupils, 115; and fail- 
ures, by grades, 207. 

Public, the, and the superintendent of 
schools, 32. 

Pupils, per teacher, 48, 50; per super- 
visory officer, 39; promotion of, 115. 

Reading and literature, 82; how to im- 
prove, 84; oral work in, S3; mem- 
ory test, 168; speed test, 166; work 
in, tested, 159-170. 

Reasoning test in arithmetic, 186-190. 

Repairs to school buildings, 265. 

Repeaters, 204. 

Report, annual school, 339. 

Retardation, causes of, 208; explana- 
tions of, 209. 

Retarded pupils, 196-202; by grades, 
201; distribution of, 202. 

Salaries of teachers, elementary 
school, 51; high school, 53; more 
money needed for, 58. 



Salary schedules, 54-56; compared for 
other city employees, 57. 

Salt Lake City, compared with Port- 
land, Oregon, as to children, 13; 
comparative isolation of, 4; cost for 
schools in, compared, 317; growth in 
population, 5; how it spends its 
dollar, 316; industries of, 14; needs 
of, 19; occupations of, 14, 15; popu- 
lation, character of, 7; population, 
children in, 10, 12, 13; population, 
age groups in, 11; position of, 3; 
position of, as to teachers, 49; rank 
of, as to city expenses, 315; rate of 
growth of, 6; school organization of, 
24; suggested new school law for, 
335-340; vocations in, 123-126; 
wealth of, 16; wealth of, compared, 
17, 18. 

School, attendance, increase in, 48, 
50, 59; board {See Board of Educa- 
tion); census {See Census, school); 
buildings {See Buildings, school); 
clerk, large importance of, 28; clerk, 
suggested powers and duties of, 337; 
department organization {See Or- 
ganization); gardening, 96; nurse 
{Sec Nurse) ; principals, 43 ; progress, 
importance of proper, 194; progress 
of children, 194 ff.; report, annual, 
339; seats, 251, 258; sites, 229-233; 
tax, annual, 327, 330, 2,3^- 

Schools, rapid growth of, 36, 47; 
where increasing, 64. 

Sites, school, 229-233. 

Sociology, 91. 

Special rooms, 253. 

Speech defects, 289. 

Spelling, good features of, 89; tests 
in, and results, 132-141; time given 
to, 88; work in, 87. 

State control of schools, 21. 

State educational purpose, the, 22. 

Subnormal children, 210. 

Superintendent of buildings, 338. 

Superintendent of health work, 339. 

Superintendent of schools, the, and 
the public, 32; good supervisory 
work by, 44; real head of the school 
system, 32-34; suggested fixed pow- 
ers of , 33 7 ; to choose his supervisors, 
43- 



346 



Index 



Supervision, character of, 44; need for 
more, 103; of work in common 
branches, 113; premium on initia- 
tive, 45; quality of grade, 118; 
special, 40; worth of, 42. 

Supervisors, special, 38, 40. 

Supervisory needs, fiurther, 41. 

Supervisory staff, 38. 

Tax, school, annual, 339; need for a 
larger, 327; remedy for, a legislative 
one, 330. 

Teachers, good tone of, 112; more 
needed, 58; number employed, by 
years, 47; number of pupils per, 48, 
50; position of city as to, 49; sal- 
aries paid, 51, 53; tenure of, 54; 
training of, 52. 

Teacher situation, bad features of, 50. 

Teeth of children, 2S6-288. 

Temperature of schoolrooms, 244-247. 

Tenure of teachers, 54. 

Tests of the instruction made, 130 ff.; 
extent of the testing conducted, 130; 
how conducted, 132; in composi- 
tion, 141-150; in arithmetic, 173- 
190; in reading, 159-173; in spell- 
ing, 132-141; in writing, 150-159; 
general conclusions as to results, 191 ; 
general recommendations as a result 



of the tests given, 192; nature of the 
tests given, 131; use of standard 
tests, 193; what tests should reveal, 

131- 
Throat and nose troubles, 285. 
Time allotments for elementary-school 

subjects, 76-78, 90. 
Toilets, school, 257-258. 
Towels, roller, 261. 

Ungraded classes, 128. 

Ungraded rooms, the so-called, 219; 

in different schools, 222. 
Ungraded school, the, 217; mistaken 

aim of, 218. 

Vacation playgrounds, activities of, 

306. 
Ventilation, factors in, 247; of school 

buildings, 246-249; poor, 248. 
Vocational education needed, 126. 
Vocational training, 122. 
Vocations in the city, 123-126. 

Ward system, undesirable, 34. 
Wealth and tax-rates compared, 325- 

3^7- 
Writing, 91, 150; median samples of, 
158; tests of, 150-159. 



